I. Through our lenses: communication filters

A. Perception and communication

1. Perception: select cues from the environment, organize them into a clear pattern, and interpret that pattern

2. There are three perceptual filters:

a. Selection process: mentally pick out cues from among many

b. Organize: by grouping, labeling; guided by culture, language

c. Interpretation: expectations, we attach meaning to the data

B. Ethnocentrism and communication

1. Ethnocentrism: consider the views and standards of our ingroup more important than any outgroups

2. Degrees of ethnocentrism:

a. Distance of indifference (low): lack sensitivity

b. Distance of avoidance (moderate): nonverbal lack of attention, avoidance, and language switching with outgroup members

c. Distance of disparagement (high): racist jokes, hate speech

C. Stereotypes and communication 

1. Stereotypes: exaggerated pictures or expectations of group on basis ofinflexible beliefs and inflexible expectations

2. A stereotype is an overgeneralization of a group without attempt to perceive individual variations

D. Stereotypes and media

1. Media create character types, shape how we view dissimilar others

2. Stereotyping is inevitable

a. Inflexible stereotyping: closed-minded negative stereotyping automatically

b. Flexible stereotyping: aware of stereotyping tendency, open to alternative evidence; use tentative loose descriptions rather than evaluative categories

II. Near-sighted focus: ingroup/outgroup membership boundaries

A. Us versus them

1. Social identity theory: study of ingroup and outgroup membership

2. Loyalty: adhere to ingroup norms and ingroup member trustworthiness

3. Intergroup communication: individuals in one group interact with another group (or members) in terms of their group membership identification

4. Ingroup favoritism principle: positive attachments and predisposition for norms and behaviors related to ones group

5. Personal identity: individual attributes to conceptualize a unique self

B. Where do I fit in?

1. Membership in an ingroup is a matter of degree and variation

2. The more association with ingroup, the greater expected conformity

3. Ingroup membership provides security and inclusion

4. Ingroup member can feel like outgroup member: because he or she is not accepted by ingroup members

C. Intergroup attributions

1. Attribution: explanation, meaning of why people behave as they do

2. Three biases that typically occur during intergroup encounters:

a. Fundamental attribution error: overestimate negative personality factors to explain strangers negative event and underestimate situational factors

b. Principle of negativity: emphasize and overgeneralize negative information about outgroup members

c. Favorable self-bias: attribute positive event that happens to us as due to positive dispositional qualities, but negative event that happens to us to be a result of situational factors

d. Self-effacement bias: remember our failures, attribute to lack of ability

III. Shattered lenses: prejudice, discrimination, and racism

A. Prejudiced remarks or innocent jokes?

1. Prejudice: indiscriminate negative feelings and predispositions toward outgroup members (but it can also mean the opposite)

2. In intercultural communication, prejudice is a sense of antagonistic hostility toward a group as a whole or toward group member

3. Unintentional jokes?: still must consider consequences  

B. Prejudice: explanations and functions

1. Four explanations for development of prejudice:

a. Exploitation theory: higher status/power group restrains lower

b. Scapegoating theory: blame minority groups for ones failures

c. Authoritarian personality approach: personality type rigidly adheres to norms, completely accepts those in authority

d. Structural approach: institutions promote pecking order

2. The communication function of prejudice

a. Ego-defense mechanism: protect ego via outgroup blame

b. Regularity: need to view own cultural values, norms, and practices as the proper way of thinking

c. Lacking accurate cultural knowledge: ignore the unfamiliar

d. Rewards and approval: received from ingroup members

C. Discrimination and practice

1. Discrimination: verbal and nonverbal actions that carry out prejudiced attitudes

2. Four types of discriminatory practices

a. Isolate discrimination: intentional harm of outgroup individual

b. Small-group discrimination: (unapproved) set of individuals in ingroup harm outgroup members

c. Direct institutional discrimination: community-prescribed endorsement of discrimination

d. Indirect institutional discrimination: unintentional, but harmful broad practice

D. Different types of racism

1. Racism involves three principles

a. Feelings of superiority based on biological or racial differences

b. Strong ingroup preferences, rejection of different outgroups

c. Doctrine that conveys special advantage to those in power

2. Examples of racism:

a. Racial profiling: a bias that intentionally or unintentionally promotes unfair treatment

b. Perpetuating stereotypic images: present majority group positively and minority group in negatively

c. Hate crimes: hostility to the victim as a member of a group

E. Reducing prejudice and racism: four practical guidelines:

1. Be honest, confront unchecked biases and ethnocentric attitudes

2. Check for bias when you evaluate behavior of outgroup member

3. Negative images concerning outgroup will distort perceptions

4. Communicate your feelings assertively towards racist remarks

IV. Intercultural toolkit: recaps and checkpoints

Flexible communicators will reduce prejudice and racism in the following ways:

A. Start with a clean slate: be flexible with your first best guesses

B. Use your most precious gift: your brain; be open to multiple perspectives

C. Continue learning about those around you

D. Remember, all of us are works in progress

            E. Stereotyping is inevitable, but engage in flexibly minding your own social categorization process