I. Functions of cultural values

A. Values: shared ideas about what is right or wrong, fair or unfair, important or not important

B. Identity meaning function: frame of reference to answer the most fundamental question: who am I in this world?

C. Explanatory function: implicit understanding of commonly shared values

D. Boundary-regulation function: shapes ingroup and outgroup attitudes

1. Attitude: learned tendency that influences our behavior

2. Ingroups: share interdependent fate and feel emotionally close

3. Outgroups: feel no emotional ties, experience psychological distance and even competition

E. Adaptational function: people and cultures adapt needs and ways of living to changing habitats

II. Analyzing cultural value dimensions

A. Discovering cultural values

1. Cultural value analysis: to analyze deep-level value differences based on cultural group memberships

2. Individual value tendencies: to pay attention to individual differences within a culture

B. Identity: individualism-collectivism value pattern (most important)

1. Individualism

a. Emphasizes individual identity, rights, and needs over group's

b. Most northern and western regions of Europe and North America   

c. Top individualist values: freedom, honesty, social recognition, comfort, hedonism, and personal equity

2. Collectivism

a. Emphasizes we identity over I identity, group rights, in-group needs                          

b. Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America, Pacific Islands

c. Top collectivist values: harmony, face-saving, equality in reward distribution, and fulfillment of others' needs

C. Power: Small-large power distance value pattern

1. Small power distance cultures value equality in power distributions, rights and relations; rewards and punishments on performance

2. Large power distance cultures accept inequality in power distributions, rights, role relations; rewards and punishments based on age, rank, status, title, and seniority

D. Uncertainty: Weak-strong uncertainty avoidance value pattern

1. Weak (or low) uncertainty avoidance cultures encourage risk taking and conflict-approaching modes (e.g., United States)

2. Strong (or high) uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer clear procedures and conflict avoidance behaviors

E. Sex roles: Feminine-masculine value pattern

1. Femininity: social gender roles are fluid and can overlap

2. Masculinity: social gender roles are complementary and distinct

a. Men: assertive, tough, task-based accomplishment concerns

b. Women: more modest, tender, quality of life concerns

III. Additional value orientation patterns

A. Meaning: Doing-being activity value orientation

1. Doing solution: achievement-oriented activities

2. Being solution: living with emotional vitality

3. Being-in-becoming modes: spiritual renewal and connection

B. Destiny: Controlling-yielding people-nature value orientation

1. Controlling their environment: control over the natural environment

2. Harmony-with-nature or flowing value solution: emphasize spiritual transformation or enlightenment over material gain

3. Subjugation-to-nature or yielding value solution: nature is beyond the control of individuals (includes fatalism: karma)

C. Time: Future-past temporal value orientation

1. Future-oriented time sense: emphasizes planning and setting clear objectives

2. Present-oriented time sense: emphasizes valuing the here-and-now, especially with regard to relationships

3. Past-oriented time sense: honor historic and ancestral ties and elders  

D. Space: Privacy-communal spatial value orientation

1. Proxemic studies: regulation of physical and psychological space

2. High-spatial privacy people: need a well-defined personal space

3. Low-spatial privacy people: are used to crowding

IV. Individual socialization development

A. Independent versus interdependent self-construal

1. The independent construal of self

a. Views self as distinct, unique; values personal achievement, self-direction, and competition

b. Predominates in individualistic cultures or ethnic groups

2. The interdependent construal of self

a. Emphasizes ingroup connectedness; values fitting in, acting in a proper manner           

b. Predominates in collectivistic cultures or ethnic groups

B. Horizontal versus vertical self-construal

1. Horizontal self-construal: prefers informality, equality, directness

2. Vertical self-construal: prefers formality, role respect

C. Internal versus external locus of control

1. Internal locus of control: emphasizes free will, personal responsibility (parallels mastery-over-nature value)

2. External locus of control: emphasizes fate, external forces shape a person's life events (parallels subordination-to-nature value)

V. Intercultural toolkit: Recaps and checkpoints

To be a flexible intercultural communication at the values clarification level:

A. Mindful observation, description, interpretations, suspend ethnocentrism

B. Observe verbal and nonverbal signals attentively

C. Describe specific behaviors

D. Generate multiple interpretations of the behaviors

E. Suspend ethnocentric reactions

F. Observe a wide range of people and situations before making generalizations