Chapter Outlines
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Chapter 1: What is Delinquency and How Does it Differ From Adult Crime?
I. Juvenile delinquency
A. Violations of criminal law by minors
1. a minor is anyone under age 18 in most states
2. a minor is someone under the age of 17 or 16
in some states
B. View and treat juvenile delinquents differently
from adult criminals
II. View of juvenile delinquents
A. Immature and in need of guidance
1. idea of immaturity
a. not knowing act is wrong
b. not realizing harm act causes
c. not able to control oneself
2. idea of guidance
a. not deserving of serious punishment
b. should be given help
B. Delinquent cases illustrate idea
1. 6-year-old girl in Florida who repeatedly hits
7-year-old friend with piece of wood
2. 6-year-old boy in California who beats a month-old
baby
III. Treatment of juvenile delinquents
A. Special laws
1. status offenses
a. running away from home
b. truancy
c. incorrigibility
d. drinking alcoholic beverages
e. violating curfew
f. engaging in certain consensual sexual activities
2. used by states to regulate lives of juveniles
more closely than adults
3. criticisms arose in 1960s and early 1970s
a. laws vague
b. subject juveniles who have not committed criminal
acts to severe penalties
c. poor, minority, females juveniles more likely
to be punished
4. efforts to address criticisms
a. divert status offenders from juvenile court and
handle informally
b. reclassify status offenders as CHINS, PINS, etc.
c. reduce number of status offenders confined in
institutions
d. some states have decriminalized status offenses
B. Juvenile court differs from adult court
1. primary goal to guide and help, not to punish
2. focus on offender rather than offense
3. more informal and less adversarial
a. several Supreme Court decisions granted juveniles
most due process rights no right to trial by jury
b. often not represented by attorney
4. terminology
a. adjudicated a "delinquent" rather than found
guilty
b. given a disposition instead of a sentence
5. more privacy
a. court hearings often closed to public and media
b. often juvenile court records can be sealed
6. no death penalty and limits on length of confinement
C. Special correctional programs for juveniles
1. protect juveniles from contact with adult offenders
2. more concerned with rehabilitation than punishment--in
theory if not always in practice
D. Older, serious juvenile offenders an exception
1. view and treat these offenders similar to adult
offenders
2. cases illustrate this point
a. 13-year-old shoots and kills man in front of
his children
b. 15-year-old shoots into a crowd of students at
a school
3. major movement to more severely punish these
offenders
a. increase severity of punishments
b. make it easier to try these juveniles in adult
court
IV. Explaining the invention of juvenile delinquency
A. Changing conception of children
1. until past few hundred years children were viewed
and treated like adults
2. beginning in 1500s and 1600s children began to
be viewed as different than adults
B. Reasons for change in perception of children
1. declining death rate of children
2. extension of formal education
3. rapid growth of urban populations creating large
slums
a. variety of problems
b. concern for children living in area
C. Explanations for "child-saving movement"
1. genuine concern of middle-class reformers to
help poor children
2. desire of upper-class people to protect their
privileged position in society
3. both explanations may have merit
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Chapter 2: HOW IS DELINQUENCY MEASURED?
I. Measuring delinquency
A. Method of measurement impacts conclusions about
delinquency
B. Three major ways to measure
1. official statistics
2. self-report data
3. victimization data
II. Official statistics--primarily arrest data from police compiled
by the FBI and reported in Crime in the United States: The Uniform Crime
Reports (UCR)
A. FBI Crime Reports provide various data on crime
1. number of crimes known to the police
2. number of crimes cleared by arrest
3. number of people arrested and characteristics
of those arrested
B. Clearance and arrest data provide information
on extent of delinquency and trends in delinquency
C. Part I offenses
1. eight relatively serious violent and property
crimes
2. FBI reports crimes known to police and clearance/arrest
data
D. Part II offenses
1. twenty additional offenses
2. FBI only reports arrest data
E. Advantages of FBI Crime Reports data
1. represent approximately 95 percent of the population
2. provide long-term information on trends in crime
3. provide moderately accurate measures of certain
types of serious crime
F. Problems with FBI Crime Reports data in estimating
extent of and trends in delinquency
1. most delinquent acts do not become known to police
a. only about one-third of all crime victimizations
reported to police
b. many crimes do not have victims
c. difficult for police to detect crimes on their
own
2. offenders are usually not caught by police
3. suspected offenders are often not arrested because
police have discretion over whether or not to arrest
4. police sometimes make mistakes and report inaccurate
data to FBI
5. police sometimes deliberately distort crime data
reported to FBI
a. "unfound" crime reports
b. reclassify crimes from more to less serious categories
6. only report most serious offense for which person
is arrested
7. summary
a. arrest data greatly underestimate extent of delinquency,
especially minor delinquency
b. arrest data may be misleading in estimating trends
in delinquency
(1) reported victimizations may increase over time
(2) police departments may encourage more arrests
(3) police reporting may become more accurate
III. Self-report data
A. Methodology
1. juveniles asked about extent of their delinquency
2. usually focus on delinquency committed during
previous year
3. usually anonymous or confidential
B. Major advantage is that provides estimates of
all delinquency committed by juveniles
C. Truthfulness of juveniles on self-report surveys
1. researchers use variety of methods to estimate
accuracy of self-report data
a. comparisons with official records
b. comparisons with peer, family, or school reports
c. use or threat of lie-detector tests
d. comparisons with drug tests
e. comparisons between groups known to differ in
their level of delinquency
2. research suggests data are moderately accurate
a. juveniles reasonably honest
b. minor level of under-reporting for serious offenses
D. Problems with self-report data
1. difficult to estimate trends because few long-term
nationwide surveys
2. underestimate extent of serious delinquency
a. respondents sometimes under-report serious delinquent
acts
b. measures often focus on minor offenses and have
vague response categories
c. report trivial acts
d. under sample most serious delinquents
E. Progress in overcoming problems
a. new methods such as "Audio Computer-Assisted
Self-Administered Interview"
b. better measures of delinquency
(1) accurate counts of number of delinquent acts
committed
(2) focus on both minor and serious offenses
(3) larger samples of juveniles
c. effort to eliminate trivial acts from delinquency
counts
d. effort to include serious offenders in sample
by over sampling juveniles in neighborhoods that have high delinquency rates
IV. Victimization data
A. National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) administered
by federal government
1. sample includes people ages 12 and older in approximately
50,000 households throughout the United States
2. respondents asked if they have been victims of
several types of crime
3. respondents asked to provide information on their
victimizations
B. Advantages
1. provides information on crimes reported and unreported
to police
2. provides information on experiences and characteristics
of crime victims
C. Problems
1. focus on only a few types of violent and property
crimes committed against persons ages 12 and older
a. no information on drug use and status offenses
b. no information on crimes committed against businesses,
such as shoplifting
c. no information on crimes committed against persons
under age 12
2. under sample certain groups with high rates of
criminal victimization
3. crime victims may not report victimizations to
interviewers
a. do not report because embarrassed, do not remember,
or offenders are family members or acquaintances
b. effort to increase reporting includes change
in wording of survey
4. victim does not see offender, especially likely
for property crimes
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Chapter 3: HOW MUCH DELINQUENCY IS THERE AND IS DELINQUENCY INCREASING?
I. Extent of juvenile delinquency
A. Arrest data
1. approximately 1.6 million juvenile arrests in
2002
a. about 416,000 arrests for Part I crimes, with
larceny theft accounting for over half
b. about 1.2 million arrests for Part II offenses,
with most arrests for "other assaults," disorderly conduct, drug abuse
violations, liquor law violations, curfew violations, and running away
c. greater number of arrests for minor crimes than
for serious crimes
2. juvenile arrest rate
a. number of juvenile arrests per 100,000 juveniles
ages 10-17 in a population
b. about 6,833 per 100,000 juveniles
(1) 280 violent Part I offenses
(2) 1,468 property Part I offenses
3. 309,000 Part I crimes cleared by arrest of juveniles
B. Self-report data
1. 2002 Monitoring the Future survey administered
to sample of about 2,500 high school seniors
a. problems
(1) omits dropouts and students who are suspended
or truant
(2) omits serious offenses like homicide and rape
(3) employs vague response categories
b. status offenses and minor forms of delinquency
are common
(1) drinking alcohol
(2) fighting with parents
(3) petty theft
(4) fighting
c. serious crimes are less frequent, although not
uncommon
2. National Survey of Youth administered to sample
of 1,725 adolescents ages 11 through 17
a. methodology
(1) sample of adolescents asked about extent of
their delinquency in 1976 and same group surveyed several additional times
through 1990s
(2) included status offenses, minor crimes, and
serious crimes
(3) precisely measured number of times each act
was committed
(4) avoided use of vague response categories
b. extent of delinquency in 2002
(1) 5,200 self-reported of delinquency per 100 juveniles
(2) 33 million juveniles engaged in hundred of millions
of delinquent acts
(3) status offenses and minor crimes are most common
c. large discrepancy between arrest data and self-report
data reveals probability of arrest very low
C. Victimization data
1. victimizations experienced by juveniles
a. 23 million in 2002
(1) violent victimizations: 5.3 million or 2.3 per
100 households
(2) property victimizations: 17.5 million or 15.9
per 100 households
(3) property and minor crimes more common than violent
and serious crimes
b. characteristics of those most likely to be victimized
by violent crime
(1) young people
(2) males, except for rape/sexual assaults
(3) African American
(4) people with lower income
2. victimizations committed by juveniles
a. rarely see offenders in property crimes, so unable
to provide age information
b. juveniles ages 12 to 17 committed about 413,000
serious violent crimes in 2002
D. Summary
1. arrest data provide lowest estimates and self-report
data give highest estimates
2. self-report data probably most accurate estimate
3. all data sources indicate minor offenses more
common than serious offenses and property crimes more common than violent
crimes
II. Trends in juvenile delinquency since early 1980s
A. Arrest rate data for juveniles ages 10 to 17
1. rate of Part I property crime
a. fairly stable from early 1980s to 1994
b. decline since mid 990s
c. 2002 rate at lowest level since 1960s
2. rate of Part I violent crime
a. reasonably stable from 1980 to 1988
b. more than 60 percent increase between 1988 and
1994
c. declining since 1994
d. 2002 rate comparable
3. rate of murder
a. more than doubled between 1987 and 1993
(1) direct result of gun-related murders
(2) certain social changes led to increase in gangs
b. declined sharply since 1994
B. Self-reported delinquency from Monitoring the
Future survey
1. rate of property crime
a. generally stable during early to mid-1980s
b. modest increase during late 1980s
c. remained at high level through early 2000s
(1) average rate per 100 seniors from 1987 to 2002
was 188.2
(2) at odds with arrest data, which show sharp decline
in rates since mid 1990s
2. rate of violent crime
a. stable during much of 1980s
b. increased during late 1980s
c. fluctuated during early and mid 1990s, but remained
generally high
d. modest decrease after 1998
(1) average rate from 1989 to 1998 was 76.3 acts
per 100 seniors
(2) average rate from 1999 to 2002 was 66.8 acts
per 100 seniors
(3) decrease later and smaller than shown in arrest
data
C. Self-reported drug use
1. rate of drug use from National Household Survey
on Drug Use (renamed National Survey on Drug Use and Health)
a. declined during 1980s and early 1990s
b. increased during early to mid 1990s
c. generally stable since mid 1990s, with slight
increase since 1999
2. other self-report data on drug use
a. similar trends, although indicate slight decrease
in past few years
b. increase from early to mid 1990s main reason
behind federal government's anti-drug ad campaign
D. Victimization data for juveniles ages 12 to 17
from National Crime Victimization survey
1. rate of violent crime victimizations committed
by juveniles
a. moderately stable during 1980s
b. increased during late 1980s to early 1990s
c. declined dramatically since 1993
2. rate of juvenile victimization by violent crime
a. increased substantially in late 1980s and early
1990s
b. declined dramatically since early 1990s
E. Summary
1. property crime
a. arrest and self-report data disagree
(1) arrest data show sharp decline since mid 1990s
(2) self-report data do not show decline
b. tentatively conclude there has be decline in
serious property crime since mid 1990s, but no decline in minor property
crime
2. violent crime
a. arrest and victimization data indicate rate stable
in early to mid 1980s, increased in late 1980s and early 1990s,
and decrease substantially since mid 1990s
b. self-report data show more modest decrease sine
1998
(1) conclude that rates of serious violence increased
dramatically in late 1980s and early 1990s but then declined sharply
(2) conclude that rates of less serious violence
increased by modest amount during late 1908s and early 1990s and decreased
by modest amount in late 1990s
3. drug crimes
a. overall rates declined substantially during 1980s
and early 1990s
b. rates increased substantially from 1992 to 1997
c. rates moderately stable since late 1990s
III. Explaining dramatic decline in serious crime since mid 1990s
A. Possible factors contributing to decline in juvenile
crime rates
1. decline in crack use and decline in turf disputes
between crack dealers
2. improvements in economy during 1990s
3. improvements in police practices
4. increased use of prevention and rehabilitation
programs
5. higher rate of incarceration for juvenile offenders
B. Continuing decline will depend on such things
as trends in economy and extent to which United States makes use of effective
crime control strategies
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Chapter 4: WHO IS MOST LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN DELINQUENCY?
I. Relationship between
social class and delinquency
A. Introduction
1. most people assume lower-class juveniles are
more delinquent than middle-class juveniles
2. large number of studies yields contradictory
findings
B. Early studies based on arrest data were primary
measure until 1960s
1. lower-class communities had higher arrest rates
than did higher-class communities
2. criminologists concluded social class strongly
associated with delinquency
C. Early self-report studies widely used during
1960s
1. data indicated little or no relationship so criminologists
concluded social class unrelated to delinquency
2. explanations for discrepancy between arrest data
and self-report data
a. lower-class offenses are more likely to come
to attention of police and result in arrest
b. Chambliss' study showed visibility, demeanor,
and bias affected perceptions
c. middle-class and lower-class youth have different
reasons for engaging in delinquent acts
D. Criticisms of early self-report studies
1. focused on status and minor offenses, and provided
little information on serious delinquency
2. used truncated response categories that failed
to accurately measure high-rate offenders
3. failed to examine very poor juveniles or the
length of time that juveniles had been poor
E. Later self-report studies such as National Youth
Survey (NYS)
1. few or no class differences for most types of
minor delinquency
2. lower-class juveniles are more likely to engage
in serious delinquency
3. more high-rate offenders in lower class
F. Overall conclusions
1. no relationship between social class and minor
delinquency
2. social class moderately related to serious delinquency,
due to more high-rate offenders in lower class than in working and middle
class
II. Relationship between race and delinquency (focus on African Americans
and whites)
A. Arrest data
1. FBI does not report arrest data on Latinos and
non-Latinos
2. African Americans disproportionately involved
in delinquency, with larger differences for serious crimes
a. race differences declined in recent years
b. arrest rates for African Americans have been
falling faster than those for whites
3. criticisms
a. crimes committed by African Americans may be
more likely to come to attention of police
b. African Americans offenders more likely to be
arrested than white offenders
B. Self-report data
1. early self-report studies find little or no relationship
2. later self-report studies find more complex relationship,
similar to that of social class
a. African Americans and whites commit similar levels
of minor delinquency
b. African Americans more likely to engage in serious
delinquency, but not to extent reported in arrest data
c. larger percentage of high-rate African Americans
offenders than high-rate white offenders
d. Latinos higher rates than non-Latino whites,
but possibly lower rates than African Americans
C. Victimization data
1. African Americans more likely than whites to
be both offenders and victims of violence
a. African American juvenile rates of serious violent
offending 2.4 times higher than whites
b. African American juveniles about five times as
likely as white juveniles to be victims of homicide
2. most crime intraracial so higher victimization
rates suggest higher offending rates
D. Overall conclusions
1. little or no relationship between race and minor
delinquency
2. African Americans more likely than whites to
engage in serious delinquency
3. race differences in serious delinquency declined
in recent years
E. Race and social class in relation to serious
delinquency
1. comparison of delinquency of lower-class African
Americans to lower-class whites and of middle-class African Americans
to middle-class whites indicates that social class explains some but not
all of relationship
2. remaining differences likely due to community
context--African Americans more likely to be poor and to live in high-poverty
communities
III. Relationship between age and delinquency
A. All three data sources show that crimes peak
during mid- to late adolescence
1. rates for property crime peak in mid to late
adolescence and then decline rapidly
2. rates for violent crime peak in late adolescence
and early adulthood and then decline more slowly
3. rates of illicit drug use peak in late teens
and early 20s; peak varies somewhat by type of drug
B. Primary reason for peak is increase in number
of juveniles that start committing crimes during adolescence
C. Different patterns for females and African Americans
1. female offending, especially violence, peaks
slightly earlier
2. African Americans less likely to stop offending
when they become adults
IV. Relationship between gender and delinquency
A. All data sources show
1. males have higher rates of delinquency than females
2. gender differences greatest for serious violent
and serious property crimes
3. reasons for differences
a. greater number of male offenders than female
offenders
b. male offenders committing more offenses than
female offenders
B. Arrest and self-report data
1. arrest data
a. males more likely than females to be arrested
for every crime except prostitution and running away
b. males and females tend to be arrested for same
types of crimes
(1) most often arrested for minor crimes
(2) greater portion of all male arrests for serious
crimes
(3) greater portion of all female arrests for larceny
theft and status offenses
c. trends in male and female delinquency
(1) arrest rates increased faster for females from
mid 1980s to mid 1990s
(2) arrest rates declined more slowly for females
from mid 1990s to 2002
2. self-report data
a. findings in agreement with arrest data
(1) males have higher rates of delinquency
(2) even though males commit more serious acts,
males and females tend to commit similar types of crimes
b. contrary to arrest data show gender ratio in
delinquency fairly stable since 1960s
C. Summary of gender differences in delinquency
1. males have higher rates, especially for serious
violent and property crimes
2. males commit more offenses, but females also
commit a broad range of offenses
3. some evidence that difference becoming smaller
V. Different types of delinquents
A. Non-offenders, low-rate offenders, and high-rate
offenders
1. small percentage (10 percent or less) of juveniles
do not engage in delinquency
2. large percentage (majority) commit small to moderate
number of delinquent offenses
3. small percentage (5–15 percent) commit an enormous
number of offenses
B. Types of offenses committed by juvenile offenders
1. small number specialize in a particular type
of crime
2. large majority of juveniles commit range of minor
offenses
3. small percentage commit mixture of minor and
serious offenses
C. Age at which juveniles start and stop delinquent
behavior
1. most common pattern is "adolescent-limited" offenders--start
offending in late childhood to mid-adolescence and stop offending in late
adolescence
2. smaller group of "chronic" offenders
a. often begin delinquent or antisocial behavior
as young children
b. more likely to offend at high rates, commit serious
offenses, and continue offending as adults
D. Common patterns of juvenile offending
1. tendency to move from less serious to more serious
offending
2. tendency for frequency of offending to increase
during early to mid-adolescence and decrease during late adolescence and
adulthood
E. Different types of delinquents
1. high-rate, serious, chronic offenders that commit
enormous amount of crime
2. low-rate, minor, adolescent-limited offenders
3. other groups fall in between
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Chapter
5: WHAT IS A THEORY AND HOW DO WE TEST THEORIES?
I. Introduction to theory
A. Attempt to explain or describe causes of something
B. Basic parts of a theory
1. dependent variable--what is to be explained
2. independent variable--what is believed to be
the cause
3. reasons why independent variable causes dependent
variable
4. conditioning variables--conditions under which
independent variable most likely to cause dependent variable
C. Reasons to study theories of delinquency
1. help explain why some individuals and groups
more likely to engage in delinquency
2. guide most research on delinquency
3. can help society better control and prevent delinquency
4. can help us better understand our own and others'
behaviors
II. Guidelines associated with scientific method used to test theories
A. Carefully define independent and dependent variables
1. variables precisely defined
2. definitions seem reasonable
B. Decide how to gather data
1. surveys
2. experiments
3. field studies
C. Develop measures of independent and dependent
variables
1. (for surveys) questions should reflect definitions
developed for variables
2. (for surveys) questions should be clearly understood
by respondents
D. Sampling of juveniles
1. can generalize to population from representative
or random sample
2. unable to generalize when sample not representative
E. Analyze data
III. Conditions for assessing causality
A. Independent variable associated with dependent
variable
1. positive association--high score on independent
variable associated with higher level of dependent variable
2. negative association--high score on independent
variable associated with lower level of dependent variable
B. Association not due to chance
1. larger samples reduce likelihood of association
due to chance
2. with random sample can statistically estimate
probability that association due to chance
C. Association not due to third variable
1. third variable may affect both independent variable
and dependent variable
2. research should control for relevant third variables
D. Independent variable precedes dependent variable
in time
1. longitudinal research used to assess effect of
variables across time
2. effect of variables may be reciprocal
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Chapter 6: STRAIN THEORY: DOES STRAIN OR STRESS CAUSE DELINQUENCY?
I. Introduction to strain
theory
A. Juveniles experience strain, become upset, and
sometimes engage in delinquency
B. Several versions, each describes major types
of strain and conditioning variables
II. Two major categories of strain
A. Failure to achieve goals
1. money
a. central goal and necessity that some have difficulty
obtaining through legal channels
b. research provides limited support that monetary
strain related to delinquency
2. status/respect
a. want to be treated in just and fair manner
b. threats to manhood or "masculine status" for
certain group members
3. thrilling or exciting activities
a. sometimes referred to as "sensation seekers"
b. trouble satisfying this desire through legal
channels
4. autonomy from adults
a. defined as freedom from control of others
b. school system especially likely to frustrate
autonomy goals
c. delinquency means of asserting autonomy,
achieving autonomy, or venting frustration
5. personal goals
B. Loss of positive stimuli/presentation of negative
stimuli
1. lose something of value
2. negative treatment
a. parental rejection
b. parental supervision/discipline that is very
strict, erratic, excessive
c. child abuse and neglect
d. abusive peer relations
e. criminal victimization
f. homelessness
g. experiences with prejudice and discrimination
III. Impact of strain on juveniles
A. Experience negative emotions such as anger and
frustration
B. Cope with strain and negative emotions using
one or more strategies
1. cognitively reinterpret strain so as to minimize
its impact
a. e.g., "it's not that important" or "it's not
that bad"
b. e.g., "I deserve it"
2. behavioral strategies involve actions that attempt
to reduce strain
a. nondelinquent strategies
(1) e.g., avoid peers
(2) e.g., negotiate with teachers
b. delinquent strategies
(1) e.g., attack peers
(2) e.g., threaten teachers
3. emotional coping strategies attempt to reduce
negative emotions resulting from strain
a. nondelinquent strategies
(1) e.g. exercise
(2) e.g. relaxation techniques
b. delinquent strategies include using illegal drugs
C. Factors increase likelihood that strain will
lead to delinquency
1. experiences strain in an area of life considered
important
2. poor coping skills and resources
3. few conventional social supports
4. costs of delinquent coping are low and the benefits
are high
5. disposed to delinquency
6. situations where the costs of delinquency are
low and benefits are high
IV. Support for strain theory
A. inability to achieve certain goals and the experience
of certain negative events increase likelihood of delinquency
B. some factors increase likelihood that juveniles
will respond to strain with delinquency
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Chapter 7: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: DO INDIVIDUALS
LEARN TO BE DELINQUENT FROM OTHERS?
I. Introduction to social
learning theory
A. Juveniles learn to engage in delinquency through
association with or exposure to others
B. Types of associations
1. primary or intimate groups
2. interactions with others at school, religious
community, neighborhood, and other settings.
3. indirect contact (e.g., media)
C. Associating with delinquent others increases
likelihood of delinquency
1. provides support for, but does not prove, social
learning theory
2. to prove social learning theory must demonstrate
that juveniles learn to engage in delinquency from delinquent others
D. mechanisms by which juveniles learn to engage
in delinquency from others
1. others differentially reinforce delinquent behavior
2. others teach beliefs favorable to delinquency
3. others provide delinquent models to imitate
II. Differential reinforcement of delinquency
A. Others reinforced past delinquency and continued
reinforcement of delinquency anticipated
B. Factors of reinforcement
1. frequency: tend to repeat behaviors that are
frequently reinforced and avoid those that are frequently punished
2. amount: more likely to engage in behaviors with
a lot of reinforcement
3. probability: more likely to engage in behaviors
with highest probabilities of reinforcement
4. "differential reinforcement" means different
behaviors have different probabilities of being reinforced
C. Types of reinforcement and punishment
1. positive reinforcement: behavior results in something
good
2. negative reinforcement: behavior results in removal
of something bad
3. positive punishment: presentation of something
bad
4. negative punishment: removal of something good
D. Sources of reinforcement
1. other people, particularly family members and
friends
2. self-reinforcement and punishment
3. intrinsic or "nonsocial" reinforcers
E. Some individuals more likely to be reinforced
for delinquency
1. deliberate and less-deliberate reinforcement
2. less reinforcement for conventional behaviors
F. Schedules of reinforcement
1. continuous
a. every act is reinforced
b. rare schedule of reinforcement for delinquency
2. intermittent
a. only some acts are reinforced
b. common schedule of reinforcement for delinquency
c. usually sufficient to maintain behavior
G. Discriminative stimuli
1. juveniles learn to distinguish situations most
likely to result in reinforcement
2. commit delinquency in situations with highest
probability of reinforcement
H. Research on reinforcement and delinquency
1. experimental studies show strong effect of reinforcement
on subsequent aggression
2. surveys and field studies find reinforcement
increases delinquency
III. Beliefs favorable to delinquency
A. Categories
1. generally approve of minor delinquency
2. conditionally approve of delinquency, including
some serious delinquency
a. subculture of violence
b. excuses and justifications identified by Sykes
and Matza
(1) denial of responsibility
(2) denial of injury
(3) denial of victim
(4) condemnation of the condemners
(5) appeal to higher loyalties
3. general values conducive to delinquency
a. emphasis on excitement, thrills, or kicks
b. disdain for hard work and desire for quick and
easy success
c. high value on toughness and physical strength
B. Sources
1. others (e.g., family members, delinquent friends,
community residents, and media)
2. self (after engaging in delinquency)
IV. Imitation of delinquent models
A. Most likely to imitate models under certain conditions
1. like or respect model
2. see model receive reinforcement
3. see model give off signs of pleasure
4. in environment where imitating model's performance
is reinforced
B. Others may inadvertently model aggressive behavior
C. Media provides aggressive and violent models
to imitate
D. Studies demonstrate importance of imitation on
delinquency
1. experimental studies
2. survey studies
3. field studies
V. Summary of social learning theory
A. Substantial support for theory
B. Along with control theory, is leading explanation
of delinquency
Back to Top
Chapter 8: CONTROL THEORY: DO WEAK CONTROLS RESULT
IN DELINQUENCY?
I. Introduction to control
theory
A. Explains conformity rather than delinquency
B. Conform because of controls or restraints
1. belief that delinquency is wrong
2. fear of sanctions
II. Why juveniles conform and sometimes deviate
A. Some individuals high in control
1. believe delinquency very wrong
2. believe delinquency would be heavily sanctioned
B. Some individuals low in control
1. believe delinquency only a little bit wrong
2. believe delinquency would not be heavily sanctioned
III. Similarities and differences between control and social learning
theories
A. Both focus on extent to which delinquency is
prevented through sanctions
B. Differences
1. social learning theory focuses on factors that
motivate delinquency
2. control theory assumes all juveniles naturally
motivated toward delinquency
IV. Major types of control
A. Direct control
1. efforts of others to control behavior
a. parents major source
b. also includes justice system, school officials,
neighborhood residents, and others
2. four components
a. setting clearly defined rules for juvenile
b. monitoring behavior
(1) direct: under direct surveillance of parent
or other authority figure
(2) indirect: parents or other authority figures
keep tabs on juvenile
c. sanctioning rule violations in a consistent,
fair, and not overly harsh manner
d. reinforcing conventional behavior
B. Stake in conformity
1. what a juvenile has to lose by engaging in delinquency
2. emotional attachment to conventional others
a. delinquency may upset people one cares about
b. delinquency may cause them to think badly of
juvenile
3. actual or anticipated investment in conventional
activities
a. most juveniles have spent much time and energy
in conventional activities
b. most juveniles have been rewarded and expect
future rewards for efforts
c. most juveniles do not want to jeopardize that
investment by engaging in delinquency
C. Internal control refers to an effort to constrain
oneself from delinquency
1. beliefs regarding delinquency
a. those low in direct control and with a low stake
in conformity less likely to believe delinquency is wrong
b. juveniles with an amoral orientation toward delinquency
do not hold beliefs that restrain them from delinquency
c. some juveniles not taught that delinquency is
bad
2. ability to exercise self-control
a. individuals differ in ability to control or restrain
themselves
b. low self-control indexed by several personality
traits, such as impulsivity, insensitivity, shortsightedness, etc.
c. major cause of low self-control is ineffective
parenting
V. Summary of control theory
A. Delinquency most likely when low direct control,
low stake in conformity, and low internal control
B. Data generally support theory
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Chapter 9: LABELING THEORY: DOES THE REACTION TO
DELINQUENCY LEAD TO FURTHER DELINQUENCY?
I. Introduction to
labeling theory
A. Focuses on official and informal reactions to
delinquency central ideas
B. Focuses on impact of this reaction on juveniles
1. labeled "delinquents" viewed as bad
2. harsh/rejecting responses increase likelihood
of further delinquency
a. Reduction in control
b. Increase in strain
c. Increase in social learning for crime
d. View themselves as delinquents
II. Five major questions addressed by labeling theorists
A. Why certain acts are defined as delinquent or
status offenses
B. How others react to delinquency
C. What impact the reaction to delinquency has on
further delinquency
D. Why some juvenile offenders are more likely than
others to experience the "harsh/rejecting" reaction
E. Whether some juvenile offenders are more likely
than others to respond to the harsh/rejecting reaction with further delinquency
III. Reactions to juvenile's delinquency
A. Harsh/rejecting reaction
1. essential features
a. juveniles labeled delinquent
b. label leads others to view them as bad people
c. juveniles rejected and treated in harsh manner
2. reaction of official agencies can have negative
effect
3. informal reactions by parent, teachers and others
a. parents may become overly strict or reject delinquent
children
b. school personnel may harshly sanction and segregate
delinquent children
B. Failure to respond
1. reasons for little response
a. others never find out about delinquency
b. delinquent behavior ignored or only mildly sanctioned
(1) does not deserve sanction
(2) lack of good evidence
(3) overwhelmed with more serious cases or with
behavior
2. arguments for policy of "radical nonintervention"
a. most delinquency minor and juveniles "grow out
of it"
b. labeling can make matters worse
3. recommendations for reducing intervention
a. police handle cases informally whenever possible
b. juvenile court officials divert from court whenever
possible
c. place formally processed youth in community-based
programs
d. legalize or decriminalize status and minor delinquent
acts
4. criticisms of "radical nonintervention"
a. may reduce direct control
b. may reduce indirect control
C. Condemnation of delinquent behavior with acceptance
of juvenile
1. essential features
a. sanction delinquent behavior without being overly
harsh
b. conventional others maintain close ties to juvenile
2. arguments for this approach
a. eliminates negative effects of harsh/rejecting
reaction and of radical nonintervention
b. helps develop internal control
3. restorative justice approach entails conference
between offender, victim, family members of both, and community representatives
a. focus on helping offender appreciate harm caused
by act
b. strategy developed to repair harm caused by act
(1) apology
(2) restitution to victim
(3) community service
c. once harm repaired, offender forgiven and ties
to community restored
IV. Further discussion on relationship between rejecting/harsh reaction
and further delinquency
A. Reduces various forms of control
1. direct control over juvenile lowered
a. parents/teachers avoid juvenile
b. apply harsh methods of discipline
2. juvenile's stake in conformity reduced
a. emotional ties weakened with parents/teachers
b. investment in conventional society weakened
3. juvenile's internal controls weakened
a. less likely to condemn delinquency
b. weakened efforts at self-control
B. Increases strain for juvenile
1. more difficult to achieve goals
2. possible loss of positive stimuli and presentation
of negative stimuli
3. may increase level of irritability and so sensitivity
to strains
C. Increase juvenile's social learning of delinquency
1. more likely to associate with delinquent others
who reinforce delinquency
2. increases exposure to delinquent models
3. more likely to develop beliefs and rationalizations
favorable to delinquency
D. Creates delinquent self-concept
1. self-concept function of how others view and
treat us
2. some juveniles viewed as bad may come to view
themselves as bad
V. Factors that affect whether juvenile experience harsh/rejecting
reaction
A. Frequency and/or seriousness of delinquency that
becomes known to others
1. serious offenders often viewed as bad people
deserving of harsh sanctions
2. justice system often harshly punishes these offenders
B. Socioeconomic characteristics of juvenile
1. lower-class juveniles (and parents) lack financial
resources, connections, reputation, and negotiating skills to negotiate
mild treatment
2. lower-class, certain minority group members,
and older juveniles fit stereotype of serious delinquents
C. Gender differences for types of offense
1. males perhaps more severely sanctioned for serious
offenses
2. females more harshly sanction for status offenses
D. Level of control and association with delinquent
peers
1. Juveniles low in control who associate with delinquent
peers treated more harshly
a. fit stereotypes of delinquent
b. less able to resist efforts of others
c. lack close ties to conventional others
d. poor problem solving skills
e. weak attachment to parents/ teachers
2. points illustrated with study of "Saints and
Roughnecks"
VI. Factors that increase juvenile's response to harsh/rejecting reaction
with further delinquency
A. Low in control
B. Believe delinquency desirable or justifiable
response
C. High in strain
VII. Evidence on labeling theory
A. Ideal test would examine three groups of comparable
offenders, which each receive a different reaction--harsh/rejecting, failure
to respond, or condemnation of behavior with acceptance of juvenile
B. Most tests compare arrested delinquents to comparable
delinquents who have not been arrested
1. find slightly higher levels of subsequent delinquency
for arrested delinquents
2. problems with this approach
a. many arrested juveniles do not experience harsh/rejecting
reaction
b. cannot assume nonarrested juveniles do not experience
harsh/rejecting reaction
C. Other tests of labeling theory
Back to Top
Chapter 10: HOW DO WE EXPLAIN DIFFERENT PATTERNS
OF OFFENDING OVER THE LIFE COURSE?
I. Patterns of offending
over the life course
A. Adolescent-limited
B. Life-course persistent
II. Adolescent limited offending
A. Most adolescents engage in delinquency
1. Small to moderate number of minor offenses
2. High school cliques involve to varying degrees
in delinquency
B. Biological changes associated with adolescence
1. physical and sexual maturation
2. increased level of testosterone in males
3. not fully developed prefrontal cortex
C. Social changes as transition from childhood to
adulthood
1. more autonomy than children but less than adults
2. more material resources than children but less
than adults
3. higher status than children but less than adults
4. more responsibility for behavior
5. more responsibility for education and career
goals
D. Reduction in control
1. less direct control from parents and teachers
2. reduced stake in conformity with parents and
teachers
3. reduction in internal as parental ties weaken
and ties to peers strengthen
E. Increase in social learning for crime
1. peer associations and loyalties strengthened
2. association with delinquent peers more likely
for adolescents
a. more freedom and less direct control
b. more time spent on street and in large, secondary
schools
c. attracted to delinquent peers
F. Increase in strain
1. trouble achieving goals like autonomy, money
and status
a. parents limit spending money and restrict freedoms
b. teachers may treat juveniles in demeaning manner
2. loss of positive stimuli or presentation of negative
stimuli
a. increase in size of social world
b. increase in likelihood of negative treatment
by others
3. fewer legal coping skills and resources
III. Life-course persistent offending
A. 4 to 10% of population
1. start offending at high rates early in live
2. engage in minor and serious crimes
3. offending often continues into middle age
B. Traits conducive to crime
1. irritable and low in self-control
2. develop traits early in life
a. inherited from parents
b. result of "biological harms"
c. develop because of poor parenting practices
C. Poor parenting
1. causes
a. parents irritable and low in self-control so
more likely to neglect or respond in harsh manner
b. stressors associated with poverty
c. children difficult to manage
2. provide less direct control and have weaker bonds
with children
3. function as deviant models, teach beliefs conducive
to crime, and/or reinforce aggressive behaviors
D. Traits and poor family experience persist over
time
1. biological factors persist over time
2. consequences contribute to continued existence
E. Traits and poor parenting lead to variety of
problems
1. lack discipline and skills necessary to perform
well at school and work
2. elicit negative reactions from others and are
rejected or treated harshly
3. reduced control, increased social learning of
crime, and increased strain
IV. Summary
A. Life-course persistent offenders
1. experience poor parenting and develop traits
conducive to delinquency early in life
2. traits and poor parenting persist over time and
lead to additional problems
3. continue offending into adulthood because offending
rooted in ongoing problems that originate during childhood
4. family, school, and other problems then to be
more serious
B. Limited research suggest traits conducive to
crime and poor parenting associated with life-course persistent offending
C. Changes during adulthood can reduce levels of
offending
1. decent jobs
2. good marriages
3. involvement in effective rehabilitation programs
Back to Top
Chapter 11: IS DELINQUENCY MORE LIKELY IN CERTAIN
TYPES OF SITUATIONS?
I. Introduction
A. Juveniles predisposed to delinquency spent majority
of time in nondelinquent activities
B. Involvement in delinquent activities heavily
influenced situational factors
C. Altering situations may effectively reduce delinquency
D. Situations conducive to delinquency
1. juveniles are strained or provoked
2. alcohol and drugs are used
3. costs of delinquency are seen as low
4. benefits of delinquency are seen as high
II. Situational Strains
A. Provocation by others, especially males attacking
other males with verbal or physical attacks that are perceived as deliberate
1. strains
a. presentation of negative stimuli
b. threats to one's status
2. increase likelihood for violent response
3. many offenders not innocent victims of provocations
by others
a. offender may mistreat others and elicit negative
reaction
b. usually series of verbal exchanges where offender
demand victim apologize
c. if victim refuses, often verbal exchange escalates
into violence
B. Other situational strains
1. desperate need for money
2. threats to autonomy
3. loss of positive stimuli
C. Efforts to reduce crime by reducing situational
strains
1. staggering bar closing house so people enter
streets at different times
2. separating rival soccer fans and reducing waiting
time before and after games
III. Social learning and control theory suggest crime most likely
in situations where benefits of delinquency seen as high and costs seen
as low
A. Benefits
1. tangible (e.g., money or property)
2. intangible (e.g., social approval from others
or thrills and excitement)
B. Costs
1. likelihood of being caught and punished
2. guilt or bad feelings
C. Juveniles calculation of benefits and costs
1. most not rational in sense that they consider
all the benefits and costs in a particular situation
2. most give limited though to benefits and costs
in given situation
a. do not engage in delinquency act in presence
of parents or police
b. attach smaller or weaker targets
c. degree of consideration varies
D. Situational features that influence calculation
of benefits and costs
1. attractive targets
a. property
(1) visible and accessible
(2) valuable
(3) easy to move
(4) unlikely to provoke guilt if stolen
b. person
(1) visible and accessible
(2) though to posses valuable items
(3) unlikely to offer effective resistance
(4) unlikely to provoke guilt if attacked
c. efforts to make targets less attractive
(1) reducing value of targets
(2) target hardening techniques
(3) increase ability of targets to offers effective
resistance
(4) increase moral costs of committing crimes
2. absence of capable guardians or individuals who
might interfere with crime
a. examples include police, teachers, and neighbors
b. efforts to increase presence of capable guardians
(1) additional staffing of convenience stores
(2) locating cashier in middle of store rather than
to the side
(3) locate store in areas where other businesses
are open during evenings
3. presence of delinquent peers
a. reduce costs of delinquency
b. increase anticipated benefits of delinquency
IV. Summary of situational features that increase the likelihood of
a delinquent response
A. Intensified sensitivity to strain
B. Reduced perceptions of costs of delinquency
C. Increased perceptions of benefits of delinquency
D. Use of alcohol and drugs
1. reduce ability to engage in legal coping
2. reduce awareness of and concern with costs of
delinquency
E. Presence of attractive targets
F. Absence of capable guardian
G. Presence of delinquent peers
V. Factors that increase likelihood for predisposed offenders to encounter
situations conducive to delinquency
A. Actively seek out situations conducive to delinquency
1. search for homes to burglarize or individuals
to rob
2. search in convenient and familiar areas
3. select targets near homes and places frequently
traveled
B. Encounter situations conducive to delinquency
during routine activities
1. unstructured, unsupervised activities with delinquent
peers
a. unstructured activities include hanging out,
going to parties, and riding around in cars
b. unsupervised activities are when no capable guardians
are present
2. time of day
a. on school days violence most often occurs during
hours immediately following end of school
b. on nonschool days violence most often occurs
between 8 and 10 P.M.
3. places or locations
a. public setting more than private settings
b. settings that bring youth together in absence
of capable guardians
C. Factors influencing routine activities
1. age and sex
a. adolescents most likely age-group to engage in
unstructured, unsupervised activities
b. males more likely than females to engage in unstructured,
unsupervised activities
2. social and technological changes
a. increases in parental work, single-parent families,
and multi-car households have decreased parental supervision
b. increases in lightweight, valuable products like
DVD players and computers
Back to Top
Chapter 12: HOW CAN WE EXPLAIN GROUP DIFFERENCES
IN DELINQUENCY, PARTICULARLY COMMUNITY DIFFERENCES IN RATES OF DELINQUENCY?
I. Introduction
A. Focus on communities rather than individuals
B. Provide model to explain group differences in
delinquency rates
II. Community characteristics and delinquency
A. Crime rates higher in some communities
B. Characteristics of high-crime communities
1. economic deprivation
2. residential instability in that people frequently
move in and out of community
3. family disruption
4. high percentage of African-American and/or Latino
residents
a. association between race/ethnicity and community
crime rates due to third variables like economic deprivation, residential
instability, and family disruption
b. poor African-Americans more likely than poor
whites to live in such communities
III. Prevalence of high-poverty communities
A. Increase in numbers of such communities and people
living in them from 1970 to 1990
1. migration of working and middle class African-Americans
to more affluent communities
2. government housing policies placed public housing
projects in poor inner city communities
3. major changes in economy
a. decline in low-skill jobs paying a decent wage
(1) manufacturing jobs moved to suburban areas or
oversees
(2) wages in manufacturing jobs become less competitive
b. increase in low-skill service sector jobs
B. 24% decrease in numbers of such communities and
people living in them from 1990 to 2000
1. strong economy during 1990s
2. federal housing policies encouraged replacement
of public housing projects with mixed-income housing
3. concern as to whether this trend will continue
IV. Reasons why deprived communities are higher in crime
A. Attract or select crime-prone individuals
B. Characteristics of community cause individuals
to engage in crime
1. higher in strain
a. goal blockage
(1) less access to jobs, especially well-paying
jobs
(2) less able to achieve social status, especially
"masculine status"
b. lost of positive stimuli/presentation of negative
stimuli
(1) family disruption
(2) school problems
(3) criminal victimization and child abuse
c. fewer legitimate coping resources and increased
anger
2. lower in control
a. less effective direct control
b. less likely to provide juveniles with stake in
conformity
c. less likely to socialize juveniles to condemn
delinquency and exercise self control
d. reasons for less control
(1) trouble finding decent work so lack skills and
resources necessary to assist others in community
(2) less likely to have close ties to neighbors
and community
(3) less likely to support or form community organizations
3. foster social learning of crime
a. delinquent groups more likely to form
b. develop beliefs favorable to delinquency
V. Community crime rates
A. Dependent variable: economic deprivation, residential
instability, and family disruption increase crime rates
B. Independent variable: increase in crime rates
affects other factors
1. businesses and residents move out of communities
2. property values fall
3. poorer individuals move into community
4. reduction in control, increase in social learning
for crime and increase in strain
C. Reciprocal relationship between crime rates and
community characteristics
VI. Overview of leading theories of delinquency
A. Each theory presents different image of delinquent
1. strain theory--angry and frustrated because of
problems or stains and unable to cope through legal channels
2. social learning theory--believes delinquency
desirable or justifiable response to particular situation
3. control theory--unrestrained
4. labeling theory--branded as "bad," rejected and
mistreated by conventional others
B. Combination of theories provides more complete
explanation of delinquency
Back to Top
Chapter 13: INDIVIDUAL TRAITS: WHAT IMPACT DO THEY
HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?
I. Introduction to individual
traits
A. Relatively stable ways of perceiving, thinking
about, and behaving toward the environment and oneself
B. Certain traits increase likelihood of delinquency
C. Clusters of related traits called "super-traits"
1. low self-control comprised of several specific
traits
2. date over how many super-traits and the composition
of these traits
II. Individual traits that increase likelihood for delinquency
A. Low verbal IQ
1. individuals have trouble expressing themselves,
remembering information, and thinking abstractly
2. explaining how low verbal IQ increases likelihood
for delinquency
a. strain theory
(1) increases strain by making it more difficult
to achieve goals and by increasing likelihood of negative relationships
with others
(2) decreases likelihood for coping through legitimate
channels
b. social learning theory: reduces likelihood of
reinforcement for conventional behavior
c. control theory
(1) leads to poor school performance, thus weakening
one's stake in conformity
(2) reduces ability to foresee consequences of offending
and to exercise self-control
B. Low self-control
1. consists of several specific traits
a. impulsivity,
(1) tendency to act without considering consequences
of one's behavior
(2) strong preference for immediate versus delayed
rewards
b. risk-seeking
c. hyperactivity
d. low ambition, motivation, or perseverance
e. amoral beliefs or beliefs favorable to delinquency
2. effect on delinquency
a. strain theory
(1) trouble achieving goals through legitimate channels
(2) likely to upset others
(3) likely to respond to strain with delinquency
b. social learning
(1) attracted to rewards associated with crime since
these rewards typically immediate
(2) find crime rewarding in and of itself since
crime typically involves risky behavior
(3) likely to view crime favorably
c. control theory
(1) less constrained by direct controls and stake
in conformity
(2) less thought given to consequences
(3) less constrained by beliefs
d. labeling theory
(1) more likely to be labeled and treated as "bad"
and rejected by conventional others
(2) labeling and rejection increases strain, reduces
control, fosters social learning of crime
C. Irritability
1. consists of several specific traits
a. heightened sensitivity to stressors or strains
b. tendency to attribute problems to malicious behavior
of others
c. self-centered, little concern for rights and
feelings of others
d. aggressive/antagonistic interactional style
2. effect on delinquency using
a. strain theory
(1) provoke negative reactions from others
(2) more sensitive to strains
(3) more inclined to cope to strain with delinquency
b. social learning theory
(1) rejected by conventional others and associate
with delinquent peers
(2) find crime more rewarding
c. control theory
(1) less responsive to direct controls
(2) less likely to condemn crime
d. labeling
(1) more likely to be viewed and treated as "bad"
people
(2) produces negative effects described above
III. Explaining why individuals differ in traits
A. Biological factors
1. genetic inheritance and biological harm
a. create predisposition for crime by influencing
likelihood individuals will develop traits conducive to crime
b. influence development of such traits through
effect on central nervous system and autonomic nervous system
2. genetic inheritance of crime
a. twin and adoption studies suggest genetic link
to crime
b. cautions to consider
(1) extent to which crime inherited may vary by
type of crime and by type of offender
(2) influential role in explanation of high-rate,
chronic delinquency
(3) genetic factors only partly responsible
(4) delinquency most likely when individual has
both genetic predisposition for crime and lives in environment conducive
to crime
3. biological harm and crime
a. caused by variety of factors
(1) mother's poor health habits during pregnancy
and/or delivery complications
(2) exposure to toxic substances and/or poor diet
(3) head injury
b. research problems
(1) failure to control for relevant third variables
(2) failure to conduct longitudinal studies
c. certain types of biological harm contribute to
some crime
4. central and autonomic nervous systems
a. dysfunctions in frontal lobe of the brain
b. dysfunctions in left hemisphere of brain
c. under arousal of autonomic nervous system
d. reduced levels of serotonin
5. dysfunctions of central and autonomic nervous
systems may lead to crime
a. increase likelihood that individual will develop
traits conducive to crime
b. evidence of genetic effect on many traits linked
to crime
c. evidence of biological harm influencing traits
linked to crime
B. Environmental factors
1. individual traits also function of social environment,
particularly family environment and social class
a. early family environment
b. social class
2. difficult to separate effects of environmental
and biological factors in precise manner
a. social environment can contribute to biological
harm
b. biological factors can affect social environment
c. environmental and biological factors may condition
effect of one another on traits conducive to crime
Back to Top
Chapter 14: THE FAMILY: WHAT IMPACT DOES THE FAMILY
HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?
I. Introduction to family
and delinquency
A. All major delinquency theories argue family influences
whether juveniles engage in delinquency
1. level of and reaction to strain
2. learns to conform or deviate
3. control to which subjected
4. extent to which labeled
B. Research on family and delinquency focused on
four major aspects of family
1. family structure--size and composition of family
2. parental and sibling deviance--extent to which
parents and siblings engage in crime and deviant behavior
3. quality of family relationships--emotional ties
between family members and how well they get along with each other
4. parental socialization--extent to which parents
teach their children to conform or deviate
II. Family structure
A. Broken homes argued by many to be major cause
of delinquency
1. broken homes cause delinquency for a number of
reasons
a. juveniles are under strain due to conflict associated
with breakup and other problems that follow breakup
b. juveniles are subject to less control because
breakup disrupts emotional bonds and supervision
c. juveniles have less exposure to conventional
role models
d. juveniles more likely to be labeled delinquent
2. large percentage of juveniles now live in broken
homes and are likely to suffer range of problems
3. data on broken homes and delinquency are mixed
a. some studies find no difference between those
from broken and intact homes
b. other studies, particularly those based on official
data, find those from broken homes more likely to engage in delinquency
4. conclude from overall data that broken homes
have small to moderate effect on delinquency
5. homes broken by divorce/separation have stronger
association with delinquency
6. broken homes versus quality of family relationships
a. effects of broken homes less than effects of
behavior/attitudes of family
b. broken homes with good relationships less likely
to result in delinquency than intact homes with bad relationships
B. Mother's employment outside the home has little
or no effect on delinquency
C. Placing juveniles in child-care facilities may
contribute to a modest increase in aggression and problem behavior in
some children
1. morning-to-afternoon increase in cortisol indicating
children experience strain
2. learn aggressive behaviors from others
3. subject to less direct control, weaker bonds
to parents, and slower to develop internal control
D. Teenage parents
1. teenage motherhood has moderate effect on delinquency
a. teenage mothers more likely to have larger families,
be single parents, live in poverty, and obtain welfare or public assistance
b. children of teenage mothers more likely experience
factors conducive to delinquency
(1) e.g., premature birth and low birth weight
(2) e.g., physical abuse, neglect, or abandonment
(3) e.g., trouble in school
2. Teenage fatherhood
a. delinquents more likely to become teenage fathers
than nondelinquents
b. likely that teenage fathers increase likelihood
of delinquency
E. Large family size has small effect on delinquency
1. less parental supervision
2. more strain
3. exposure to delinquent peers
III. Parental and sibling crime/deviance
A. Parental crime/deviance increases likelihood
of delinquency
1. may model aggressive behaviors and encourage
children to be tough
2. less likely to establish strong emotional bonds
with children
3. more likely to engage in abusive behaviors and
get into conflicts with other family members
4. children more likely to be viewed and treated
as "bad"
5. may pass on genetic traits conducive to delinquency
B. Sibling crime/deviance increases likelihood for
delinquency
1. siblings exposed to similar family influences
2. delinquent siblings socialize one another by
providing models, reinforcements, and teaching beliefs conducive to delinquency
IV. Quality of family relationships
A. Parental affection for or rejection of children
1. delinquency lower when parents express their
love for their children
a. talk with them
b. express an interest in them
c. provide them with comfort and support
2. delinquency much more likely when parents reject
or ignore their children
a. parental rejection one of strongest family correlates
of delinquency
b. parents are unlikely to earn children's love
or effectively socialize them
B. Attachment of juvenile to parent
1. delinquency lower when children have strong emotional
bond or attachment to parents
a. attachment functions as form of control
b. reduced likelihood juveniles will fall under
influence of delinquent peers
c. less likely to find home a stressful place
2. delinquency higher when children have weak attachment
to parents
C. Family conflict
1. delinquency lower in families with little conflict
a. includes conflict between spouses and between
parents and juveniles
b. forms of conflict include quarreling, expressions
of disapproval, nagging, scolding, and threatening
2. family conflict is more likely to produce delinquency
a. weakens emotional bonds between parents and children
b. disrupts efforts to socialize children
c. exposes children to aggressive models and beliefs
d. increases likelihood of association with delinquent
peers
e. increases level of strain experienced by children
D. Child abuse
1. early studies had number of methodological problems
and may have exaggerated effect of abuse on delinquency
2. more recent studies suggest that abuse increases
likelihood of delinquency by a moderate amount
3. most abused children do not become serious delinquents
V. Parental socialization
A. Teaching children not to engage in delinquency
1. provide clear rules for behavior that specify
what behaviors are unacceptable
2. directly/indirectly monitor children's behavior
to ensure compliance with rules
3. consistently sanction children for rule violations
a. sanctions should not be too harsh or punitive
b. recommended sanctions include imposition of chores,
clear expressions of disapproval, reasoning, and time out
4. employ effective problem-solving techniques for
resolving problems
a. clearly state problem in neutral terms
b. other person paraphrases problem
c. brainstorm list of solutions
d. choose solution through process of negotiation
e. develop contract that describes terms of the
agreement
B. Family disciplinary styles that increase likelihood
of delinquency
1. supervision and discipline are lax
2. parents frequently punish or threaten punishment,
but ineffectively and inconsistently punish
a. negative pattern of interaction develops between
family members
b. reduces emotional bonds and levels of control,
while increasing strain and anger
C. Teaching children to engage in conventional behavior
1. parents teach children intellectual, cognitive,
and behavioral skills
a. provide direct instruction in these skills
b. model these skills
c. provide opportunities for children to practice
these skills
d. reinforce children when they successfully employ
these skills
2. parents provide emotional, informational, and
instrumental support when children face problems that they cannot handle
VI. Reviewing the impact of family on delinquency
A. Important family variables are parental rejection
of the child and parental efforts to socialize the child against delinquency
B. Delinquency least likely when quality of family
relationships is good and parents attempt to socialize children against
delinquency
1. referred to as "warm and authoritative" or "warm
and firm"
2. parents have warm relationship with children
and have clear rules they enforce
C. Delinquency most common when parents are "warm
and lax" or "cold and lax"
D. Family variables more important during childhood
and early adolescence
E. Some parents employ poor parenting practices
1. lack traits for effective parenting
2. lack knowledge
3. have difficult children
4. experience strains or stressors
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Chapter 15: THE SCHOOL: WHAT IMPACT DOES THE SCHOOL
HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?
I. School experiences and
delinquency
A. School experiences associated with delinquency
1. low academic performance
2. little school involvement
3. low attachment to school
4. poor relations with teachers
5. low educational/occupational goals
6. dropping out of school
7. school misbehavior
B. Explaining association between school experiences
and delinquency
1. both school experiences and delinquency caused
by same third variable
2. delinquency may cause negative school experiences
3. school experiences have modest causal effect
on delinquency
II. Why some juveniles have negative school experiences
A. Individual traits like low intelligence and low
self-control
B. Family factors like family size, parental criminality,
parental rejection, and poor discipline
C. Associating with delinquent peers and gang members
D. Misbehavior and delinquency
E. Background factors including social class, sex,
race/ethnicity, residential mobility, and type of community
F. Type of school child attends
III. School characteristics and delinquency
A. Amount of delinquency occurring at school
1. serious violence relatively rare
2. less serious forms of violence more common
3. theft more common than violence
4. most forms declining since early to mid 1990s
5. bullying is extensive
a. three dimensions of bullying
(1) behavior designed to harm or disturb others
(2) occurs on a repeated basis
(3) involves a more powerful person or group attacking
a less powerful one
b. victims of bullying suffer range of negative
psychological and social consequences
B. School differences in rates of delinquency
1. rates higher in schools that have higher percentage
of less able, poor, male, and members of minority-group students
2. rates higher in schools located in urban communities
with high rates of crime, poverty, unemployment, and female-headed households
3. school characteristics have small to modest association
with rates of within-school delinquency.
C. School characteristics that reduce within-school
delinquency
1. small, with good resources
a. average teacher instructs smaller number of different
students
b. teachers are provided with needed materials and
equipment
2. good discipline
a. clear rules that are consistently reinforced
b. not overly punitive
3. provide opportunities for student success and
praise students for accomplishments
4. high expectations for students
5. pleasant working conditions for students
a. teachers have positive attitudes toward and show
concern for students
b. teachers create pleasant physical space for students
to work
6. good cooperation between the administration and
teachers
a. administrators and counselors keep teacher informed
of disciplinary problems
b. administrators and counselors assist teachers
in their disciplinary efforts
7. strong community involvement
D. Effects of these school characteristics on delinquency
1. create less strain
2. subject students to greater control
3. more likely to punish delinquent and reinforce
conformity
4. provide less exposure to delinquent others
5. less likely to label students as "bad"
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CHAPTER 16: DELINQUENT PEERS AND GANGS: WHAT IMPACT
DO DELINQUENT PEER GROUPS AND GANGS HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?
I. Impact of delinquent
peers on delinquency
A. Delinquent friends typically strongest correlate
of delinquency
1. association due to several causal effects
a. delinquent peers on delinquency
b. third variables
c. delinquency on delinquent peers
2. Elliott and Menard's study shows common pattern
of progression
a. juveniles associate with mildly delinquent peers
before engaging in delinquency
b. association with mildly delinquent peers leads
to minor delinquency
c. minor delinquency leads to association with more
delinquent peers
d. association with more delinquent peers leads
to more serious delinquency
3. delinquent peers and delinquent acts reciprocally
related to one another
B. Conditional effects of adolescent's friends that
strengthen impact of delinquent peers on delinquency
1. all friends are delinquent
2. friends form cohesive group
3. adolescent likes friends and spends a lot of
time with them
4. friends hold beliefs conducive to delinquency,
approve of adolescent's delinquency, and pressure adolescent to engage
in delinquency
5. effects explained by social learning theory
C. Delinquent peer groups
1. types of delinquency
a. most commit minor delinquent acts on an occasional
basis
b. some commit more frequent and serious delinquent
acts
2. size and composition
a. offending groups are groups that actually commit
delinquent acts
(1) typical size is two to four juveniles
(2) usually commit offenses with different members
of larger groups
b. accomplice networks are pool of potential co-offenders
(1) average size is about seven juveniles
(2) delinquent youths have larger networks
3. group members typically similar in age and sex
a. most are male
b. peak at ages 15 to 18
c. females more likely to be part of mixed-sex groups
4. instigators and followers
a. instigators are same age or a little older than
other group members
b. females are more likely to follow male instigators
than males are to follow female instigators
c. juvenile may be instigator with one set of friends
and follower with another group of friends
5. quality of relations between group members
a. similar to those found in conventional peer groups
b. more likely to repost getting into conflicts
with one another
D. Explaining the effect of delinquent peer groups
on delinquency
1. social learning theory
a. reinforce delinquency
b. provide delinquent models
c. foster beliefs conducive to delinquency
2. control theory
a. reduce fear of direct controls
b. reduce stake in conformity, and
c. reduce level of internal control
3. strain theory
a. experience more conflict with one another and
with others in community
b. more difficult to achieve certain goals through
legitimate channels
4. labeled as delinquent
E. Reasons juveniles get involved with delinquent
peer groups
1. individual traits of irritability and low self-control
a. increase likelihood of rejection by conventional
peer groups
b. strong need for thrill and excitement more attracted
to activities of delinquent groups
2. family variables that promote delinquency increase
likelihood of association with delinquent peer groups
3. negative school experiences increase likelihood
of association with delinquent peer groups
4. living in deprived, inner-city communities increases
likelihood of becoming involved with delinquent peers
5. delinquent behavior itself increases likelihood
of association with delinquent peers
a. prefer delinquent peers
b. rejected by conventional peers
II. Gangs
A. Differ greatly from one another
1. some are large, highly organized, and heavily
involved in drug sales
2. others small, loosely organized, and have little
or no involvement in drug sales
B. Various definitions of a street gang
1. Klein defines a gang as an "identifiable group
of youngsters" with certain characteristics
a. perceived as a distinct aggregation by others
in the neighborhood
b. recognize themselves as a distinct group
c. involved in a sufficient number of delinquent
acts to elicit negative responses from residents and/or law enforcement
officials
2. alternative definitions
a. protect territories or turfs
b. formal organizational structures
C. Extent of gangs in the United States
1. National Youth Gang Center survey
a. gangs present in all cities with populations
of 250,000 or more, most cities with populations of 50,000 to 250,000,
and many smaller areas
b. 24,500 gangs with 772,500 gang members in 2000
2. self report studies of urban youth
a. 5 to 15 percent of adolescents belong to gangs
in a given year
b. 8 to 30 percent belong to gangs at some point
during adolescence
3. dramatic increase in gangs from the 1970s to
the mid 1990s
a. increase in number of gangs, gang members, and
cities with gang problems
b. number of gang members increased from 55,000
in 1975 to almost 850,000 in mid 1990s
4. gang activity declined from 1996 to 2001, especially
in smaller areas
III. Effect of gangs on crime and delinquency
A. Gang members commit substantial share of all
delinquency in certain cities
1. disproportionate involvement in serious and violent
delinquency
2. lethal violence more likely among gang members
a. more than half of all homicides in Los Angeles
and Chicago in 2001 were gang related
b. gang members more likely to own, carry, and use
guns
B. Dispelling myths associated with gang crime
1. gang members do not spend most of their time
engaged in crime
2. street gangs do not control drug sales in the
United States
3. victims of gangs are infrequently innocent bystanders
4. street gangs are not all alike
a. social gangs
b. party gangs
c. serious delinquent gangs
d. organization gangs
C. Explaining the causal relationship between gang
membership and delinquency
1. delinquent individuals are more likely to join
gangs
2. gang membership and delinquency are caused by
many of same third variables
3. gang membership causes delinquency--individuals
increase delinquency after joining gangs and decrease delinquency upon
leaving gangs
IV. Describing gang members and gang structure
A. Characteristics of gang members
1. poor and live in lower-income, urban communities
2. predominantly male
3. young--average age between 17 and 20
4. belong to minority groups
B. Gang organization and structure
1. some are highly organized, with a well-defined
structure
2. most are loosely organized
a. distinction between core members and fringe members
b. divided into informal cliques or subgroups
c. few well-defined goals or rules
d. membership changes frequently over time
e. often bound together through conflict with external
groups, rather than through internal cohesion
C. Female gangs
1. three types
a. mixed sex
b. female gangs affiliated with male gangs
c. impendent female gangs
2. female members
a. exercise good deal of control over their own
affairs
b. members engage in wide range of delinquent acts
c. less delinquent than male members
3. reasons for joining gangs
a. similar to reasons males join gangs
b. problems with special relevance to female gang
members
(1) experience problems like abuse at home
(2) seek partial escape from gender oppression they
encounter or anticipate encountering in the future
D. Joining and leaving gangs
1. reasons for joining gangs
a. socialize with friends, have fun, and receive
support and companionship
b. desire for positive identity and status
c. security or protection from others
d. financial gain
2. initiation ceremony when decide to join
3. most gang members leave within a year
a. witness death or injury of a friend
b. direct victim of violence
c. sent to a correctional institution
d. get a job, have children, or get married
e. gang itself breaks up
f. mature out with age
E. Theoretical explanations for joining gangs
1. way to cope with strain
a. cannot acquire enough money or gain status/respect
through legitimate means
b. neglected or abused by family members
c. harassed by others in school or community
d. find their lives dull and boring
2. conditioning variables that increase likelihood
for juveniles to join gangs
a. friends are gang members
b. live in communities where gang members are respected
and reinforced for gang membership
c. low in direct control and have low stake in conformity
F. Explaining why gangs often develop in deprived,
inner-city communities
1. lower in control
a. few community resources
b. high rates of residential mobility
2. experience much strain
a. trouble achieved monetary and status goals through
legitimate channels
b. juveniles often treated in negative manner by
others
3. conflict with others triggering factor that turns
juveniles into gangs
4. juveniles may form gangs in response to media
portrayals of gang life
G. Explaining trends in gang activity
1. increases since the 1970s
a. dramatic increase in number of high-poverty neighborhoods
and the number of people living in such neighborhoods
(1) loss of manufacturing jobs, movement of middle
and working-class African Americans from inner-city to suburban areas,
and concentration of public housing in inner-city communities
(2) such areas more likely to develop gangs
b. spread to working-class and middle-class communities
(1) change in economy created uncertain economic
future
(2) large population increases reduce levels of
control and contributed to conflict between youth groups
c. increase in youth violence from late 1980s to
mid 1990s
d. media and manufacturers provide gang models to
imitate
2. explaining stabilization and decline in gangs
from the mid 1990s to 2001
a. strong economy
b. decline in high-poverty communities
c. decline in youth violence
3. gang activity increased somewhat from 2001 to
2002 perhaps due to downturn in the economy in early 2000s
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Chapter 17: WHAT EFFECT DOES RELIGION, WORK, THE
MASS MEDIA, DRUGS, AND GUNS HAVE ON DELINQUENCY?
I. Religion and delinquency
A. Explaining why religion might reduce delinquency
1. increase external and internal controls, stake
in conformity, and internal control
2. increase exposure to conventional models, teach
conventional beliefs, and reinforce conformity
3. reduce strain and provide social support
4. reduce likelihood of being labeled delinquent
B. Empirical data indicate religion slightly reduces
delinquency
1. especially for "victimless crimes" like alcohol
and marijuana use
2. part of association due to third variables, including
low self-control, parental attachment, and parental supervision
3. effect partly indirect through peers associations
C. Why religion affects victimless crimes for than
serious crimes
1. serious crimes condemned by both religious and
nonreligious individuals and groups
2. victimless crimes more strongly by religious
groups
D. Fundamentalist and conservative religious groups
commit fewer victimless crime
II. Work and delinquency
A. Explaining why work might reduce delinquency
1. reduce monetary strain
2. increase control and provide stake in conformity
3. reduce social learning of crime
4. often reduces crime among adults
B. Empirical data indicate work slightly increases
delinquency
1. relationship strongest for drug/alcohol use and
minor delinquency
2. association found when adolescents work long
hours in menial jobs
C. Explanations for association between work and
increased likelihood for delinquency
1. increases strain
a. often poor working conditions with long hours
b. work demands are combined with family, school,
and social demands
2. more likely to have money for drugs/alcohol
3. reduces certain forms of control
a. stake in conformity because less time spent with
family members and devoted to schoolwork
b. direct control because less time spent with parents
and adolescents less dependent on parents for money
c. much work time unsupervised by adults
4. foster social learning of crime
a. work source of delinquent friends
b. more time spent with delinquent friends
III. Mass media and delinquency
A. TV/movie violence
1. hundreds of studies examine effect on juvenile
violence
a. experiments examine whether groups exposed to
media violence engage in more subsequent violence than do groups not exposed
to media violence
b. real world studies attempt to take account of
relevant third variables and issues of causal order
2. data indicate a small to modest effect on juvenile
violence
3. conditions under which TV violence is most likely
to cause violent behavior
a. committed by attractive characters
b. rewarded and not punished
c. presented as justified
d. negative consequences are not shown
4. explaining causal effect of media violence on
juvenile violence
a. social learning theory
(1) exposes juveniles to violent models
(2) models often attractive characters and their
violence is frequently rewarded
b. control theory
(1) desensitizes viewers to violence
(2) reduces levels of internal control
c. strain theory
(1) view world as more dangerous place
(2) become more suspicious of others increasing
likelihood of violent response
B. Violent video games
1. game players are active participants in screen
violence so some argue video game violence may have stronger effect than
TV/movie violence
2. survey data find association between playing
video games and aggression
a. association may be due to third variables
b. association may be due to aggression causes one
to play violent video games
3. experimental data indicate small, short-term
increase in aggression
C. Music with violent themes
1. few studies that examine effects on aggression
yield mixed findings
2. some suggest an association between listening
to "violent music" and increases in aggressive thoughts and feelings
D. Mass media violence not a major cause of violence
as many people claim
IV. Drugs and delinquency
A. Reasons why drugs may affect delinquency
1. pharmacological effect of certain drugs
a. weaken self-control and/or increase irritability
b. withdrawal may increase irritability and frustration
2. engage in crime in order to obtain money to purchase
drugs
3. drug trade contributes to crime
a. drug sellers and customers use violence against
one another
b. drug sellers and users are attractive targets
for robbers
4. drug use increases predisposition to engage in
delinquency
a. reduces bonds to family and school
b. lowers academic performance
c. increases likelihood of association with delinquent
peers
B. Research on drugs and crime
1. data indicate individuals frequently are under
influence of drugs when they commit crimes
a. e.g., 2002 study fund 60% arrested male juvenile
test positive for drugs other than alcohol
b. victimization data suggest four in ten violent
crimes involve use of alcohol
2. strong association between drugs and delinquency
3. association does not mean drugs cause delinquency
a. drugs and delinquency are caused by same third
variables
b. delinquency causes drug use/sales
c. prior delinquency increases likelihood of subsequent
drug use
4. serious drug use does contribute to delinquency
a. effect not as large as associational data suggest
b. much of effect due to third variables
V. Guns and delinquency
A. Gun possession and ownership among juveniles
1. common among certain categories of juveniles
a. institutionalized delinquents at time of incarceration
b. male delinquents
c. gang members
d. males in certain inner-city high schools
2. reasons why juveniles own or carry guns
a. for protection
b. for sport or recreational purposes
3. large majority acquire guns illegally
4. factors associated with gun ownership
a. male
b. parents own guns
c. peers own guns
d. belong to gangs
e. threatened or shot at with gun
f. sell drugs
B. Guns as contributors to delinquency
1. United States has highest rates of gun ownership
and lethal violence in industrialized world
2. studies show positive association between rate
of gun ownership and rate of gun-related crime
3. studies show juveniles who own or carry guns
much more likely to engage in most forms of delinquency
a. those who own guns for protection 23 times more
likely than nongun owners
b. those who own guns for sport three times more
likely than nongun owners
4. association does not prove guns increase likelihood
of delinquency
a. may be caused by same third variables
b. may be that delinquency causes gun ownership
5. guns contribute to certain types of delinquency
a. homicide
b. serious, violent crime
6. guns increase likelihood that certain predisposed
individuals will engage in crimes
C. mixed data as to whether guns cause or prevent
more crimes
1. criminals have avoided victimizing individuals
that thought were armed
2. National Crime Victimization Survey
a. guns used for self-defense purposes about 100,000
times a year
b. guns used to commit about 1 million crimes a
year
3. other surveys indicate guns more likely used
for self-defense purposes
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Chapter 18: PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER: IS IT POSSIBLE
TO CONSTRUCT A GENERAL THEORY OF DELINQUENCY?
I. Overview of a general
theory
A. Major direct causes of individual delinquency
1. four clusters
a. irritability/low self control
b. poor parenting practices
c. negative school experiences
d. association with delinquent peers/gang members
2. causes related to all major delinquency theories
B. Clusters relate to one another
1. reciprocal effect
2. effect other clusters
C. delinquency affects clusters
D. biological factors and larger social environment
affects clusters
II. Review of theories and research on the causes of delinquency
A. Theories of delinquency
1. strain theory focuses on stressful events that
lead to delinquency
a. two major types of strain--failure to achieve
positively-valued goals and loss of positive stimuli/presentation of negative
stimuli
b. strain leads to negative emotions
c. delinquency used in an effort to cope with strain
and negative emotions
2. social learning theory focuses on associations
with others that lead to delinquency
a. present beliefs favorable to delinquency
b. model delinquency
c. reinforce delinquency
3. control theory focuses on controls that prevent
delinquency
a. direct controls
b. stakes in conformity
c. internal controls
4. labeling theory focuses on individuals with "delinquent"
label
a. often rejected and treated in harsh manner
b. harsh/rejecting treatment increases delinquency
5. explain life-course patterns of offending
a. adolescent-limited offending
b. life-course persistent offending
6. describe situations conducive to delinquency
a. juvenile is provoked
b. drugs/alcohol are used
c. attractive targets available
d. capable guardians absent
e. delinquent peers present
B. Research on independent variables that may cause
delinquency
1. Individual traits
2. family experiences
3. school experiences
4. school characteristics
5. delinquent peers or gang membership
6. religion, work, mass media, drugs, and guns
III. General theory of delinquency
A. Major direct causes of individual delinquency
grouped into four clusters
1. irritability/low self control
a. lower in internal control
b. higher in strain
c. learn to engage in crime
d. labeled as "bad" and treated in harsh/rejecting
manner
2. poor parenting practices
a. high in strain
b. low indirect control
c. low stake in conformity
d. learn to engage in aggressive behavior
e. parents label children as "bad" and treat in
harsh/rejecting manner
3. negative school experiences
a. high in strain
b. low stake in conformity
c. low direct control
d. learn to engage in crime
4. delinquent peer association
a. increases strain
b. reduces direct control
c. reduces stake in conformity
d. fosters social learning of crime
e. increases likelihood of being labeled as "bad"
f. increases time spent in unstructured, unsupervised
activities
B. How clusters relate to one another
1. reciprocal effects between clusters
a. each cluster has direct effect on delinquent
and indirect effect through other clusters
b. problems in one cluster tend to create problems
in other clusters
2. each cluster influences effect of other clusters
on delinquency
a. effect of one cluster on delinquency greater
when other clusters conducive to delinquency--e.g., delinquent peer associations
conditions effect of poor parenting practices on delinquency
b. conditioning effects improve ability to predict
delinquency
3. delinquency often affects clusters and prior
delinquency often directly increases likelihood of subsequent delinquency
a. delinquency affects clusters
(1) most likely when others label delinquents as
"bad" and treat in harsh/rejecting manner
(2) effect conditioned by juvenile's prior standing
on clusters
b. prior delinquency directly increases likelihood
of subsequent delinquency
(1) delinquency not detected or sanctioned by conventional
others
(2) delinquents find delinquent behaviors beneficial
in certain ways
(3) effect conditioned by individual's standing
on clusters
4. background variable affect clusters
a. biological factors
(1) genetic inheritance
(2) biological harm
b. social environment
(1) type of community
(2) position in larger society in terms of gender,
age, and parental social class
(3) association of race/ethnicity with clusters
due to relationship between race/ethnicity and parental social class and
community characteristics
(4) larger social influences such as economic system
IV. Patterns of offending over life course and group differences in
delinquency
A. Patterns of offending over life course
1. adolescent-limited pattern
a. social and biological changes associated with
adolescence affect four clusters
b. increase in delinquent peer association increases
offending
2. life-course persistent pattern
a. develop traits of irritability/low self-control
and experience poor parenting early in life
b. create problems in other domains/clusters
B. Group differences in delinquency largely explain
by fact that members of some groups score high on clusters
V. Using general theory to explain why males have higher rates of
delinquency than females
A. Males higher in irritability/low self-control
1. evidence for biological factors
a. sex-related differences in temperament at birth
b. sex differences in physical aggression early
in life
c. historical and cross-cultural studies consistently
find males more involved in physical aggression
d. genetic inheritance
2. evidence for environmental factors
a. females socialized to be submissive, dependent,
empathetic, and supportive
b. males socialized to be aggressive/assertive,
risk taking, independent, and competitive
B. Gender differences in other clusters
1. males less closely supervised by and attached
to family members
2. males less attached to school, spend less time
on schoolwork, and do less well in school
3. males more likely to associate with delinquent
peers
C. Special role of sexual abuse in explaining serious
female offending
1. females more often victims of sexual abuse
2. often respond by running away from home
3. turn to crime to survive
a. prostitution
b. drug selling
c. petty theft
4. involvement in such activities leads to further
abuse and exploitation
5. frequently arrested and returned to home environment
where may experience further abuse
VI. Overview of general theory of delinquency
A. Major direct causes of delinquency grouped into
four clusters, which affect delinquency
1. increase strain
2. reduce control
3. increase social learning for crime
4. increase labeling
B. Clusters have reciprocal effects on one another
C. Each cluster conditions effect of other clusters
on delinquency
D. Engaging in delinquency affects clusters and
increases subsequent delinquency
E. Biological factors and larger social environment
affects clusters
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Chapter 19: HOW IS IT DETERMINED IF SOME POLICY
OR PROGRAM IS EFFECTIVE IN CONTROLLING/PREVENTING DELINQUENCY?
I. Determining program effectiveness
in reducing delinquency
A. Randomized experiment is best method to use
1. features that provide accurate information about
program's effectiveness
a. examine levels of delinquency before and after
juveniles participate in program
b. compare delinquency levels of juveniles in treatment
and comparison or control groups
(1) juveniles in treatment group participate in
delinquency control program
(2) juveniles in control group receive normal treatment
or no treatment
c. random assignment to ensure that those in each
group are roughly identical to each other
d. juveniles randomly assigned to groups may or
may not be a random sample of juveniles
e. success determined by whether juveniles in treatment
group have lower levels of delinquency than those in control group after
treatment ends
2. meets conditions for making causal statements
a. association
b. association not due to chance
c. association not due to third variables
d. correct causal order
3. importance of doing randomized experiments
a. example using "Scared-Straight" type programs
(1) "before and after" studies found offenders experienced
reductions in delinquency after program ended
(2) researchers using randomized experiments found
offenders in control group experienced reductions in delinquency as large
as program participants
(3) experiments indicate programs not effective
b. failure to properly evaluate programs can led
to misleading conclusions about effectiveness of program
c. program evaluations often have little effect
on extent to which program is used
(1) policy makers and people in general public may
not be aware of results of program evaluations
(2) programs evaluations may be ignored because
many people believe the program is effective
(3) politicians reluctant to take action because
certain programs supported by powerful groups
4. Problems in doing randomized experiments
a. individuals may violate random assignment procedure
b. juveniles in control or treatment groups may
fail to complete experiment
c. delinquency often measured in terms of arrest
rates
d. unable to generalize results to other juveniles
or to other settings
5. problems that make it difficult to do randomized
experiments
a. ethical issues
b. practical problems
B. Nonrandomized experiments serve as alternative
to randomized experiments
1. nonequivalent control-group designs
a. create control group that is similar to treatment
group
b. try to match groups on all relevant variables
that may affect subsequent delinquency
2. time-series designs
a. delinquency measured before and after program
takes effect
b. third variables can influence delinquency rates
II. Reasons why programs are ineffective at reducing delinquency
A. Program does not work
B. Program improperly implemented
1. not delivered to appropriate group of juveniles
2. appropriate services not provided
3. staff not properly trained or committed
C. Implementation or process evaluations
1. designed to determine whether program properly
implemented
2. often suggest that programs ineffective because
not delivered as intended
Back to Top
Chapter 20: THE POLICE: WHAT DO THE POLICE DO TO
CONTROL DELINQUENCY?
I. How police operate
A. Preventative patrol is major type of policing
1. uniformed officers cruise beats in marked patrol
cars
2. most departments have juvenile officers or divisions
that handle special youth problems
B. Only small amount of time spent dealing with
crime
1. most time spent cruising beat, performing administrative
tasks, and taking breaks
2. less than half their time spend answer calls
or on officer-initiated encounters
a. most calls involve noncriminal matters
b. less than 20 percent of time spent on crime-related
matters
C. Primarily reactive in nature
D. Usually do not catch offenders
1. twenty percent of all crimes known to police
result in arrest
a. offenders most likely apprehended if caught at
crime scene or can be identified
b. identification of offenders more likely
with violent than with property crimes
2. efforts to increase response time to crimes has
made little difference
E. Police usually do not arrest offenders they catch
1. most suspected offenders are handled informally
2. sometimes referrals are made to social service
agencies or diversion programs
3. several factors affect police discretion or decision
to arrest
a. seriousness of offense
b. prior record of offender
c. whether complainant presses for arrest
d. demeanor or attitude of offender
e. whether offender's parents willing and able to
solve problem
f. norms of department and community
4. additional reasons police do not arrest all suspected
offenders
a. would overwhelm police and courts
b. low opinion of juvenile court
c. feel arrest and referral a waste of time because
offenders only get a "slap on the wrist"
d. offenders best dealt with in informal manner
II. Preventative patrol somewhat effective in controlling crime and
delinquency
III. Suggestions for increasing police effectiveness
A. Hire more police
1. studies on effect of number of police on crime
rates show mixed results
a. most show little or no effect, but these have
number of problems
b. recent studies that do better job of addressing
causal order issue find increasing number of police reduces crime
2. number of police less important than what they
do
B. Police crackdowns
1. focus resources on "hot spots" of crime
a. increase police presence
(1) computer programs generate maps showing location
of hot spots
(2) deter criminals from committing crime by increasing
direct control
b. modestly effective at reducing crime
(1) effect short-lived once crackdowns end
(2) rotating crackdowns in unpredictable manner
increases effectiveness
(3) Minneapolis Hot Spots Patrol Experiment showed
periodic visits or crackdowns may be effective
2. cracking down on selected crimes
a. target particular crimes
(1) intensify patrol in areas where selected crimes
occur
(2) may accompany crackdown with media coverage
b. some efforts show success
(1) crackdown on gun violence by youth gangs in
Boston
(2) cracking down on visible signs of disorder
(3) "zero-tolerance policing"
c. conditions that increase effectiveness
(1) clearly identify high-crime areas or individuals
(2) clearly communicate that illegal acts are not
tolerated
(3) adequately monitor such areas or individuals
(4) consistently sanction illegal acts in meaningful
way
C. Community policing
1. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services
(COPS) created by U.S. Department of Justice to assist police departments
in move to community policing
2. developed in response to problems of preventative
patrol
a. isolates police from communities they patrol
b. does not deal with underlying causes of crime
c. does not fully involve community residents in
crime control
3. concept of community policing
a. foster closer ties between police and community
residents
b. solve underlying problems that lead to crime
by engaging in strategy called problem-oriented policing
c. actively involve community residents in fight
against crime
4. implementation of community policing
a. problem-oriented policing (POP) designed to deal
with underlying causes of delinquency
(1) scanning--police identify problems
(2) analysis--police try to understand causes of
and develop solutions to problems
(3) response--police implement solutions to problems
(4) assessment--police evaluate effectiveness of
solutions
b. drug abuse resistance education (D.A.R.E.) program
(1) presented to schoolchildren by uniformed police
officers
(2) focuses on preventing drug abuse, violence,
and gang affiliation
(3) tries to build positive relations with police,
foster anti-drug values, and teach resistance to peer pressure
(4) evaluation studies indicate program not effective
at reducing delinquency
c. youth organizations
(1) provide supervised recreation opportunities
and services like tutoring and mentoring
(2) police serve as advisers, participate in program
activities, provide security, and help recruit high-risk youth
(3) certain organizations may be effective at reducing
delinquency
d. Chicago alternative policing strategy (CAPS
(1) patrol officers permanently assigned to beats
(2) officers encouraged to interact with community
residents
(3) "free-roving rapid response units" implemented
to reduce response time
(4) police trained in problem-oriented policing
(5) program improved perceptions of police and certain
types of crime
5. overall evaluation of community policing
a. most community policing efforts have not been
subjected to rigorous evaluation
b. limited data suggest some effectiveness in reducing
fear of crime and improving police-community relations
c. mixed finding on effectiveness in reducing delinquency
(1) D.A.R.E program does not reduce drug use
(2) neighborhood watch-type programs do not reduce
crime
(3) problem-oriented policing rescues crime in some
circumstances
(4) youth organizations affiliated with police reduce
some crime
(5) broad-based efforts--like CAPS--reduce some
crime
d. community policing movement hold some promise
for reducing crime
Back to Top
Chapter 21: JUVENILE COURT AND CORRECTIONS: WHAT
DO THE JUVENILE COURT AND JUVENILE CORRECTIONAL AGENCIES DO TO CONTROL
DELINQUENCY?
I. Juvenile court
A. Major goals
1. shift in focus from rehabilitation to increased
emphasis on direct control through accountability and punishment
2. reasons for shift in focus
a. doubts about effectiveness of rehabilitation
b. conservative shift in political ideology
(1) conservative politicians aggressively attacked
rehabilitation and prevention programs
(2) aided by extensive and often biased coverage
of crime in news media and entertainment industry
B. Number and types of cases handled in 1999
1. extent of delinquency cases
a. 1.7 million cases
(1) 5.7 cases for every 100 juveniles age 10 and
older
(2) many juveniles handled more than once in given
year and each counted as separate visit
b. 27% increase in number of cases between 1990
and 1999
c. 11% increase in rate of cases
(1) 25% increase in rate between 1990 and 1996
(2) 11% decline in rate through 1999
2. types of crimes
a. about 42% for property crimes
b. 23% for public order offenses
c. 23% percent for violent crimes
d. 11% for drug offenses
3. characteristics of juveniles in delinquency cases
a. 76% male
b. 16- and 17-year-olds had rates 20 times higher
than 10-year-old juveniles
c. African-Americans 2.2 times higher than whites
4. sample of status offenses cases formally processed
between 1990 and 1999
a. examined four major status offenses
(1) running away
(2) truancy
(3) incorrigibility
(4) underage liquor law violations
b. males
(1) 39% of the runaway cases
(2) 54% of the truancy cases
(3) 55% of the incorrigibility cases
(4) 70% of the liquor law violations
C. Major stages in juvenile court process
1. referral to juvenile court
a. most referrals are made by police
(1) 84% in 1999
(2) provides court staff with complaint
b. parents, victims, school officials, probation
officers, and others make remaining referrals
2. intake screening
a. intake officer usually interviews juvenile and
parents
b. main purpose to gather information about case
and decide what to do with juvenile
c. number of factors considered in making decisions
about a case
(1) strength of evidence
(2) seriousness of offense
(3) prior record
(4) concern of parents and actions they plan to
take
(5) age and attitude of juvenile
(6) complainant wishes
d. decisions on how to handle cases referred to
juvenile courts in 1999
(1) 43% delinquency cases dismissed or handled informally
(2) majority status offense cases dismissed or handled
informally
e. why cases are dismissed
(1) insufficient evidence
(2) intake officer feels situation is best dealt
with by another agency
3. informal processing
a. informal probation most common method
(1) juvenile supervised in community by probation
officer
(2) case usually dismissed if juvenile successfully
meets requirements of court
b. diversion programs
(1) programs offer services like individual and
family counseling, mentoring, tutoring, drug treatment, and employment
counseling
(2) programs may be run by the court, community
organizations, and/or volunteers
(3) purpose to divert youth away from formal processing
so that they will not be stigmatized with delinquent label
(4) examples
a) teen courts
b) YES (Youth Enhancement Services) program
(5) evaluations produced mixed results
c. detention hearing held if case formally processed
and intake officer decides to detain juvenile
(1) juvenile court judge considers whether good
reason to detain
a) poses threat to community
b) might flee if released
c) would be in danger if released
(2) detention facilities
a) secure facilities often have quite bad conditions
b) less secure facilities may include group homes,
foster homes, and home detention where juveniles may be subject to electronic
monitoring
(3) juveniles detained in 20% of delinquency cases
in 1999
4. petition filed if case formally processed
a. petition describes offense(s)
b. juvenile often brought into court, read charges
in petition, and told of his or her rights
5. waiver to adult court
a. three major ways
(1) judicial waiver
(2) prosecutor discretion, concurrent jurisdiction,
or direct file
(3) statutory waiver
b. trying juveniles in adult court does not deter
them from further
6. adjudication
a. hearing before juvenile court judge to determine
whether juvenile committed offense(s)
b. juvenile "adjudicated delinquent" if determined
committed offense(s)
c. series of Supreme Court decisions during 1960s
and 1970s extended several due process rights to juveniles
(1) most influential was Gault decision
(2) still lack trial by jury
d. 66% formally processed cases result in adjudication
of delinquency
7. social history or predisposition report
a. completed by probation officer after a juvenile
is adjudicated delinquent
b. designed to identify juvenile's problems and
suggest treatment plan
8. risk and needs assessments
a. risk assessment instruments
(1) attempt to predict which juveniles most likely
to commit offenses in the future
(2) limited data suggest some differences in predictors
of offending between males and females
(3) based on their score, juveniles said to be at
low, medium, or high risk for future offending
b. needs assessment instruments
(1) list factors known to cause delinquency
(2) help court staff develop treatment plan for
juveniles
9. disposition or sentence
II. Juvenile corrections
A. Regular probation is most common disposition
1. juveniles remain in community and are asked to
satisfy certain conditions
2. probation officers supervise juveniles and make
sure they do not commit new offenses or violate conditions of their probation
3. juveniles who fail to meet conditions of probation
may have their probation revoked and face more severe sanctions
4. heavy caseloads reduce effectiveness of probation
officers in providing supervision
B. Intermediate sanctions
1. designed to provide more control and punishment
than regular probation
2. often used with probation
3. examples
a. restitution
b. scared straight-type programs
c. intensive supervision programs
d. day treatment centers
e. boot camps
4. evaluation data suggest those programs that focus
on punishing, scaring, or controlling juveniles are not effective at reducing
delinquency
C. Out-of-home placements
1. 24% of adjudicated delinquents placed out of
their homes in residential facilities in 1999
a. 24% increase in numbers from 1990 to 1999
b. 8% decrease in rate from 1990 to 1999
2. offenses for which juveniles confined
a. 4% for status offenses
b. 27% for serious violent crimes
c. 7% for simple assault
d. 31% for property crimes
e. 9% for drug offenses and 9% for public order
offenses such as weapons and alcohol violations
f. 10% for violations of probation, parole, and
court orders.
3. confinement of status offenders
a. federal guidelines discourage, yet some status
offenders confined
b. some status offenders charged with minor criminal
offenses
c. some status offenders confined if violate conditions
of their probation
d. some voluntary out-of-home placements
4. demographic characteristics of confined juveniles
a. 88% male
b. 39% African American black and 18% Hispanic
5. types of facilities
a. group home/halfway house
(1) not secure
(2) house small number of juveniles
(3) juveniles attend school in community
b. wilderness or outdoor programs
(1) provide physically challenging activities
(2) small groups
(3) juveniles learn to work together, follow directions,
and overcome challenges
c. training schools
(1) similar to adult prisons
(2) large, focus on security, do not offer sufficient
treatment, and suffer from host of problems
(3) subcultures often develop that discourage cooperation
with staff and exploit weaker inmates
d. comparing institutional experiences of males
and females
(1) males more likely to be confined for serious
violent crimes and female for status offenses
(2) females more likely to have been victims of
abuse and to have run away from home
(3) treatment programs less available in female
institutions
(4) cope differently with confinement
a) females more likely to form pseudo-family units
b) males more likely to develop an inmate subculture
that emphasizes exploitation of weaker inmates and non-cooperation with
staff
e. effectiveness of juvenile facilities in reducing
offending
(1) training schools have re-offending rates ranging
from 55% to 90%
(2) data on group homes and wilderness programs
are mixed
6. aftercare services
a. designed to ease juvenile transition back into
the community after release from an institution
b. juvenile supervised by juvenile justice personnel
c. supervision combined with treatment may reduce
re-offending
d. model developed by Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention
(1) targets juveniles with high risk for further
offending
(2) develops individual treatment plan based on
evaluation of juvenile's needs
(3) supervises juveniles when released from institutions
into the community
(4) sanctions inappropriate behavior and rewards
progress
III. Overview of juvenile justice process
A. Process as a whole
1. for every 1,000 delinquency cases referred to
juvenile court, 575 formally processed
2. of 575 processes, 382 adjudicated delinquent
3. of 382 adjudicated, 238 placed on probation,
93 placed out of home, 37 receive other sanctions
B. Effectiveness of juvenile court and correctional
agencies in controlling delinquency
1. number of sanctions do not reduce re-offending
2. sanctions with strong treatment component effective
in reducing re-offending
Back to Top
Chapter 22: DOES THE JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEM DISCRIMINATE
AGAINST CERTAIN GROUPS IN ITS EFFORTS TO CONTROL DELINQUENCY?
I. Charges of discrimination
in juvenile justice system
A. Discriminates against certain groups
1. race and ethnic groups
2. also class and gender groups
B. Discrimination in terms of conflict and labeling
theories
1. powerful groups in society view minority groups
and poor people as threat to economic and cultural interests
2. poor people and certain group members more likely
to be seen as dangerous or threatening
II. Discrimination against
African Americans within the juvenile justice system
A. African Americans--15% of population--over represented
in all aspects
1. 25% of all juvenile arrests
2. 32% of all cases handled by juvenile court
3. 40% all juveniles in detention
4. 39% all adjudicated offenders in correctional
facilities
5. 44% all cases judicially waived to adult court
B. Studies of racial discrimination
1. methodology of typical study
a. focuses on a state or one or more counties within
a state
b. examines one or more decision points
c. determines if race of juvenile influences decision(s)
when other relevant variables taken into account
2. findings of studies
a. most important determinants of treatment within
justice system are seriousness of offense and prior record
b. over-representation partly due to discrimination
against African Americans
(1) juvenile justice official may hold negative
stereotypes of African Americans
(2) believe these juveniles more likely than whites
to be dangerous, disrespectful, and have negative personality traits and
bad attitudes
3. extent of direct discrimination varies across
police departments and juvenile courts
a. less discrimination in highly professionalized
police departments where officers are well trained and supervised
b. mixed findings of discrimination between
urban and rural areas
4. extent of discrimination varies by type of crime
a. greater for less serious crimes
b. greater in enforcement of drug laws
5. small amounts of discrimination at different
points in juvenile justice process have large, overall effect
C. Racial discrimination may be direct and indirect
1. direct discrimination--African Americans treated
more severely than similar whites
2. indirect discrimination--race associated with
other variables that influence treatment of juveniles by police and court
D. Addressing over-representation of minorities
in juvenile justice system
1. federal government funding requires states to
determine whether minorities are over-represented, identify reasons for
over-representation, and implement programs to reduce over-representation
2. almost all states find African Americans over-represented
at one or more points
a. African Americans have higher offending rates
and more involved in serious crimes than whites
b. discrimination against African Americans
3. state programs to reduce minority over-representation
a. sensitivity training for police and court workers
b. developing more explicit guidelines for making
decision
c. closer monitoring of police and court decisions
for fairness
d. developing alternatives to secure detention and
confinement;
e. increasing representation of minorities in police
and court systems
III. Class and gender discrimination within the juvenile justice system
A. Class discrimination
1. community economic status may increase likelihood
of arrest
2. individual's social class may affect how one
is treated once referred to juvenile court
B. Gender discrimination
1. males more likely to be arrested and treated
severely for serious crimes
2. females more likely to be arrested and treated
severely for many status offenses
Back to Top
Chapter 23: IS IT POSSIBLE TO CONTROL DELINQUENCY
BY PUNISHING MORE OFFENDERS AND PUNISHING THEM MORE SEVERELY? THE STRATEGIES
OF DETERRENCE AND INCAPACITATION
I. Introduction
A. Criticized for not being tough enough, especially
with serious offenders
1. criticism voiced by politicians and media
2. criticism shard by many in juvenile justice system
B. Argued that juvenile justice system needs to
"get tough" with offenders, especially serious offenders
C. Efforts aim to increase level of direct control
D. Many feel efforts to get tough will reduce delinquency
1. deter punished juveniles
2. deter juveniles in general population
3. more juvenile offenders will be locked up and
unable to commit crimes on the street
II. Toughness of juvenile correctional system in dealing with serious
juvenile offenders
A. Criticized for not being tough enough
1. large majority referred to juvenile court have
their cases dismissed, handled informally, or placed on probation
2. little contact with their probation officers
and subject to only minimal sanctions
3. even most serious offenders do not receive severe
sanctions
4. juvenile court is less likely than adult court
to incarcerate serious offenders
B. Efforts to get tough
1. U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency
Prevention's comprehensive strategy
a. hold juvenile offenders accountable for their
behaviors through swift, consistent application of sanctions that are proportionate
to offenses
b. recommend system of "graduated sanctions"
(1) immediate sanctions for first-time, nonviolent
offenders
(2) intermediate sanctions for serious offenders
(3) secure care programs for most violent offenders
2. states altered mission statements to emphasize
accountability and punishment along with rehabilitation
3. efforts to get tough with serious offenders
a. make more efficient use of court staff
(1) divert less serious cases out of court systems
(2) employ risk assessment instruments to classify
offenders
b. impose more severe sanctions
(1) use intermediate sanctions
(2) mandatory minimum sentences/sentencing guidelines
(3) blended sentences
(4) waiver to adult court
(5) reduced the confidentiality of juvenile court
proceedings
(6) United States still allows for execution of
certain juvenile offenders
4. effect of get tough policies increased rate at
which juvenile offenders are subject to following
a. referred to juvenile court
b. formally processed
c. adjudicated delinquent
d. subject to intermediate sanctions
e. sent to juvenile institutions
f. waived to adult court
g. confined in adult prisons
III. Deterrence
A. Based on fear of punishment
1. increase fear of punishment by increasing certainty
and severity of punishment
2. fear of punishment will deter those punished--as
well as others--from committing delinquent acts
3. idea compatible with control and social learning
theories
B. Specific deterrence aims to deter those specific
others who are punished from further offending
1. studies of specific deterrence
a. those that compare subsequent delinquency of
juveniles who receive more and less severe punishments suggest that get-tough
approaches have no or only a small effect on future offending
b. those that compare arrested or convicted offenders
to comparable offenders who have not been arrested or convicted punished
find that formally punishing offenders does not reduce subsequent delinquency
2. reasons why punishment may not deter juveniles
from delinquency
a. juvenile justice system does not punish in effective
way
b. juveniles not very responsive to punishment
c. punishment does little to address major causes
of delinquency
d. punishment may increase likelihood of subsequent
crime by increasing strain, social learning of crime, and labeling, and
reducing social control
3. factors that may increase effectiveness of punishment
a. likelihood of punishment reasonable high
b. punished individuals have concern for costs of
crime
c. punishment combined with rehabilitation
d. steps taken to minimize negative effects of punishment
4. combining punishment with rehabilitation is effective
a. even if offenders forced to participate in them
b. in both community and institutional settings
5. restorative justice approach to punishment
a. central objectives
(1) hold offender accountable and impose meaningful
sanctions
(2) offenders repair harm they have caused
(3) restore ties with conventional others
(4) address certain other causes of delinquency
b. implementation
(1) conference that includes offender, offender's
family and supporters, victim, supporters of victim, and representatives
from community
(2) dialog between victim and offender on harm caused
and how it can be repaired
(3) offender apologizes, makes restitution, performs
community service
6. overall conclusion
a. punishing juveniles more severely does not reduce
subsequent delinquency
b. property administered punishments can reduce
delinquency
C. General deterrence aims to reduce delinquency
in general population
1. studies of general deterrence
a. compare areas that differ in terms of certainty
and/or severity of punishment
(1) certainty measured in terms of arrest rate and
severity measured in terms of average length of prison sentence served
for various crimes
(2) cannot determine causal effect, so any association
may be due to third variables or effect of crime on certainty/severity
b. longitudinal studies
(1) try to take account of third variables that
may influence certainty/severity of punishment and crime rates
(2) some examine whether certainty/severity at one
point in time affects crime rates at subsequent point in time
(3) criticized because people often unaware of certainty/severity
of punishment in areas where they live
c. self-report studies
(1) people asked to estimate likelihood they will
be punished if they commit an offense and what their punishment would
be--estimate should affect level of crime
(2) some studies are longitudinal and take account
of third variables
2. tentative conclusions about general deterrent
effect of punishment
a. increasing certainty of punishment may reduce
crime by moderate amount in some circumstances
(1) punishment only one of many factors influencing
level of crime
(2) punishment less important than factors like
individual beliefs regarding delinquency and threat of informal punishment
from family members and others
b. changes in the severity of punishment have little
or no effect on delinquency, although increasing severity may reduce delinquency
if certainty is high
c. limitations of punishment as an effective deterrent
of delinquency
(1) effect of punishment short-lived and confined
to specific area in which punishment is administered
(2) punishments administered outside of one's community
have little effect
D. Most get tough approaches focus on increasing
severity of punishment
1. simple for politicians to pas laws that increase
severity and make them appear tough on crime
2. possible to increase certainty of punishment
in way that reduces delinquency rates
a. rotating crackdowns by police
b. community policing
c. providing more resources to juvenile courts and
correctional agencies
IV. Incapacitation
A. Basic ideas
1. lock up serious and/or high-rate juvenile offenders
for long periods
2. locked-up juveniles cannot commit crimes on the
street
B. Determining how much crime incapacitation prevents
1. estimate how many crimes incarcerated offenders
commit each year when free
2. this estimate exaggerates size of incapacitation
effect for a number of reasons
a. substitution effect--when lock up one offender,
another may take his/her place
b. group effect--locking up one juvenile may have
little effect on crimes committed in groups
c. maturing out of delinquency--many juvenile offenders
substantially reduce their level of offending toward the end of adolescence
d. high-rate offenders are more likely to be locked
up--locking up additional offenders may not prevent as many crimes as
estimated
3. alternative strategies to estimate incapacitation
effects
a. compare states or other areas with different
rates of incarceration to determine whether areas with high rates of incarceration
have lower crime rates
b. examine incarceration rates and crime rates in
same area over time
C. Impact of incapacitation on crime rates
1. studies suggest increase in incarceration has
modest effect on crime rates
a. most studies focus on adult crime
b. strongest effects are for property crimes like
burglary and larceny
2. not clear extent to which findings apply to juveniles
a. juveniles confined at about half the rate of
adults
b. juveniles are more likely to offend in groups
c. incarcerated juveniles will be released while
relatively young
3. conclude that effect on juvenile crime likely
to be modest
D. Strategy of selective incapacitation
1. basic ideas
a. try to distinguish high-rate from low-rate offenders
b. confine high-rate offenders or confine high-rate
offenders for longer periods of time
2. difficult to distinguish high-rate from low-rate
offenders
a. many juveniles with extensive arrest records
are inept, not high-rate offenders
b. most high-rate offenders do not have extensive
arrest records
c. techniques for distinguishing high-rate from
low-rate offenders show only moderate ability to differentiate groups
and can pose ethical problems
d. ethical issues
3. tentatively conclude such strategy prevents modest
amount of crime
E. Carries heavy price tag
1. expensive to build and maintain juvenile institutions
2. alternatives to incarceration may be more cost
effective
3. negative effect on both people locked up and
larger community
F. Can have devastating effects on people who are
locked up and larger community
Back to Top
Chapter 24: IS IT POSSIBLE TO PREVENT DELINQUENCY
AND TO REHABILITATE DELINQUENTS? THE STRATEGIES OF PREVENTION AND REHABILITATION
I. Introduction
A. Arguments that juvenile justice system places
too much emphasis on get-tough approaches
1. no or only modest effect on delinquency
2. expensive and expose juveniles to often brutal
condition of juvenile institutions
B. Juvenile justice system emphasizes rehabilitation
and prevention in theory, but not in practice
C. Prevention and rehabilitation focus on causes
of delinquency other than direct control.
D. Distinction between prevention and rehabilitation
programs
1. prevention programs try to prevent juveniles
from becoming delinquent
2. rehabilitation programs try to reduce delinquency
of juveniles who are already delinquent
II. History of prevention and rehabilitation
A. Prevention efforts
1. never plays major role in delinquency control
efforts
2. main effort was War on Poverty initiated in early
1960s
a. tried to reduce crime and delinquency by increasing
opportunities for success through legitimate channels
b. programs based partly on strain theory
c. only a few programs remain--e.g., Project Head
Start and Job Corps
3. objections to prevention programs
a. interfere with private affairs of individuals
and families
b. costly and ineffective
c. at odds with current "get tough" approach
B. Rehabilitation efforts
1. guiding philosophy of juvenile justice system
from its inception in 1800s until 1970s, although not necessarily implemented
in practice
2. reasons rehabilitation fell out of favor during
1970s
a. rising crime rates during 1960s and early 1970s
caused many to question effectiveness of rehabilitation
b. doubts were reinforced by studies in 1970s and
1980s that claimed rehabilitation was largely ineffective
c. political climate became more conservative
C. Renewed interest in prevention and rehabilitation
1. federal government strategy for controlling delinquency
emphasizes both punishment and prevention and rehabilitation
2. other federal agencies promote prevention programs
3. research suggests get-tough approaches not effective
and have high financial and social costs
4. recent research suggests some programs effectively
reduce delinquency
III. Evaluating effectiveness of prevention and rehabilitation programs
A. Studies
1. most programs not properly evaluated
a. no random assignment of juveniles to treatment
and control groups
b. high dropout rate from treatment groups
c. failure to conduct long-term follow-ups
d. failure to examine how well programs were implemented
e. failure to replicate many of the decent evaluations
2. tentative conclusions
a. well-designed and implemented programs can reduce
rates of delinquency from 20 to 50%
b. estimates vary because studies focus on different
programs and use different definitions of "well-designed" programs
c. society should make greater use of prevention
and rehabilitation programs
B. General characteristics of effective prevention
and rehabilitation programs
1. focus on major causes of delinquency in group
being treated
a. many fail because they focus on factors that
are not important causes of delinquency
b. need to target all or most causes of delinquency
relevant to group being treated
2. are intensive
a. usually last a long time and employ several techniques
to influence juvenile or group
b. instructors often use strategy known as "cognitive-behavioral
approach" to change behavior of individuals
(1) describe what they want juvenile to do
(2) display or model what they want juvenile to
do
(3) get juvenile to practice technique and provide
juvenile with feedback and reinforcement
(4) juvenile applies technique to situations in
real world
(5) instructors provide assistance when regular
instruction is no longer needed
c. intensive nature increases cost and makes it
difficult to implement on a large scale
3. focus on juveniles at high risk for subsequent
delinquency
4. begin early
a. traits and interactional patterns are not firmly
established
b. problems that develop early have "snowball effect"
5. are run in the community rather than in juvenile
institutions
a. institutionalized juveniles are cut off from
larger community
b. institutionalized juveniles are exposed to other
delinquents on regular basis
c. institutionalized juveniles are preoccupied with
stresses of confinement
6. have warm but firm relationship between counselors
and juveniles
a. counselors establish close relationship with
juveniles
b. counselors strongly discourage deviant behavior
and encourage conventional behavior
IV. Characteristics of successful prevention and rehabilitation programs
A. Programs focusing on early family environment
1. typically target disadvantaged families or families
at risk for certain problems
2. weekly visits by nurse, social worker, or trained
paraprofessional
3. address causes of delinquency in three ways
a. attempt to reduce child's exposure to biological
harm by providing medical care to child and mother and by providing health/safety
training to parents
b. attempt to foster good parenting practices by
reducing parental stress and providing information on good parenting
c. provide educational child care to better prepare
child for school and to reduce parental stress
4. such programs address several of most important
causes of delinquency
a. reduce likelihood of biological harm and thus
likelihood that juvenile will develop traits conducive to crime
b. address family factors related to delinquency
(1) emotional bond between parents and child
(2) level of parental supervision
(3) child abuse and neglect
c. supplement socialization efforts of parents
B. Parent training programs
1. typically targeted at families of delinquents
or juveniles "at risk" for delinquency and families "at risk" for poor parenting
2. several components are taught
a. more effective discipline of children
b. how to better resolve conflicts
c. better communication skills
d. altering expectations that parents have for their
children
e. spending more time together engaging in pleasurable
activities
3. difficulties in successfully implementing these
programs
a. getting those families that need it the most
to participate
b. families experience multiple stressors--e.g.,
poor housing, work problems, poverty, and family violence
4. why these programs are effective
a. strengthen bond between parent and child, improve
parental discipline, and reduce family conflict and abuse
b. reduce strain
c. promote social learning of conventional behavior
d. increase social control
e. reduce negative labeling
C. Programs focusing on school factors
1. preschool programs
a. target children in disadvantaged areas
b. attempt to promote social and intellectual development
of targeted children and increase parental involvement in educational process
c. best preschool programs
(1) begin early in a child's life
(2) last two or more years
(3) low student/teacher ratios
(4) use carefully designed curriculums
(5) teachers meet regularly with parents
(6) continue to provide assistance once a child
begins school
2. in-school programs
a. target students doing poorly in school and/or
students rated as disruptive by teacher and others
b. tutoring programs improve school performance
but unclear if they reduce delinquency
c. programs that affect both school experiences
and delinquency
(1) juveniles sign contract with school officials
(2) staff provides needed services like tutoring
and counseling
(3) staff reinforces juveniles when they meet terms
of their contract
3. programs that alter classroom environment
a. attempt to improve classroom performance, increase
school attachment and involvement, improve relations with teacher and
classmates, and improve discipline
b. strategies include interactive teaching, proactive
classroom management, and cooperative learning groups
c. anti-bullying program encourages teacher to establish
clear rules against bullying, regularly remind students of rules, closely
monitor student activities, use nonphysical sanctions against bullies,
and protect victims
4. changing school environment
a. attempt to improve student performance, increase
school attachment and involvement, improve school discipline, and make
school environment more satisfying
b. attempt to improve school environment in various
ways
(1) teachers use innovative teaching and classroom
management techniques
(2) students help develop disciplinary rules
(3) greater use of positive reinforcers for conventional
behavior
(4) greater effort to involve parents in school
(5) increased monitoring of lunchroom, restrooms,
and school grounds
(6) effort to increase involvement and success experience
of high-risk students
c. programs reduce strain, increase social control,
foster social learning of conventional behaviors, and reduce negative
labeling by school officials
D. Programs focusing on individual traits
1. offered in both preschool and regular school
and target various groups
a. all juveniles
b. juveniles at risk for delinquency
c. juvenile offenders
2. what these programs attempt to teach
a. skills necessary for effective interaction with
others
b. how to respond to problems without engaging in
delinquency
c. basic problem-solving skills
d. how to recognize and resist negative peer pressure
e. beliefs that favor conventional behavior and
condemn delinquency
3. address causes of delinquency by reducing strain,
increasing internal control, decreasing negative labeling, and increasing
ability to resist influence of delinquent peers
4. basic steps of problem-solving training programs
a. search for cues in environment
b. interpret these cues
c. generate possible responses to situation
d. consider possible consequences of responses
e. enact chosen response
5. basic components of anger management programs
a. juveniles encouraged to explore causes and consequences
of their anger
b. juveniles taught more effective techniques for
controlling anger
c. juveniles taught social and problem-solving skills
d. juveniles are given practice in applying techniques
E. Programs focusing on delinquent peers/gangs
1. programs in general
a. focus on various types of adolescents
(1) some on adolescents in general
(2) at-risk adolescents
(3) those who belong to delinquent peer groups or
gangs
b. attempt to break up, transform, or reduce influence
of delinquent peer groups and gangs
2. suppression programs by police and courts
a. police suppression
(1) target gangs in certain areas
(2) gather information on these gangs
(3) increase patrols in areas where gangs hang out
(4) closely monitor gang members
(5) may also aggressively enforce curfew and truancy
laws and conduct "street "sweeps"
b. attempt to severely sanction gang members for
their crimes
c. suppression techniques have mixed success
3. crisis intervention programs
a. try to prevent disputes from escalating into
violence
b. mediators may make active effort to learn about
conflicts that might erupt into violence
c. attempt to reduce gang conflict in several ways
(1) challenge rumors that sometimes fuel conflict
(2) attempt to discourage gang members from resorting
to violence
(3) sometimes enlist aid of families of gang members
(4) mediate disputes between gangs and between gang
members
(5) may hold "gang summits" and try to negotiate
truces between different gangs
4. rehabilitation programs
a. directed at members of delinquent peer groups
and gangs
b. range of rehabilitation services
(1) counseling
(2) mentoring
(3) programs focusing on family problems
(4) help with school problems
(5) vocational training
(6) assistance finding a job
c. putting delinquent and conventional juveniles
together can increase delinquency of conventional juveniles
5. prevention programs
a. attempt to discourage juveniles from joining
gangs and teaching skills to resist gang influence
b. not all programs effective (e.g., GREAT or Gang
Resistance Education and Training)
c. characteristics of most effecting education programs
(1) use cognitive-behavioral strategies
(2) employ individuals with whom juveniles can identify
(3) teach skills needed to recognize and resist
influence attempts of gang members and delinquent peers
(4) often try to establish norm against gang membership
or delinquency
V. Other prevention and rehabilitation programs
A. Mentoring
1. match at-risk or delinquent juveniles with nonprofessional
volunteers
2. volunteers function as conventional role models,
offer guidance, and help juveniles deal with range of problems
B. Supervised recreational opportunities
1. attempt to increase direct control of youth
2. attempt to establish relationship between conventional
adults and youth
C. Vocational training and employment programs
1. teach at-risk or delinquent juveniles job skills
and help them find employment
2. effort to reduce strain and create stake in conformity
D. Situational crime prevention
1. designed to reduce likelihood that juveniles
predisposed for delinquency will encounter situations where they are likely
to engage in delinquency
2. situational crime-prevention strategies reduce
likelihood that individuals will encounter others who provoke them, reduce
potential benefits of crime, increase potential costs of crime
E. Gun programs
1. designed to reduce prevalence of guns among juveniles
or likelihood that youth will use guns
2. effectiveness of programs mixed
a. gun buy backs do not work
b. carefully planned police crackdowns that target
those who may carry guns may reduce gun violence
F. Community crime prevention programs
1. focus on community problems that contribute to
delinquency
2. Neighborhood Watch most common program
a. tries to increase levels of direct control in
communities
b. difficult to implement in high-crime communities,
where most needed
c. little or no effect in communities where implemented
3. other programs attempt to address a range of
community problems that contribute to crime
a. provide social services
b. stimulate economic development
c. improve housing and public services
VI. Critical role of larger social forces in preventing delinquency
A. Focus of most prevention/rehabilitation programs
1. most focus on individual and individual's immediate
social environment, not on larger social forces
2. larger social forces play major role in generating
problems and influence success or failure of prevention and rehabilitation
programs
B. Economic forces most important
1. United States has higher percentage of poor people
than other developed countries
a. about 20% all children live in families below
poverty line
b. many children live in high-poverty communities
2. poverty contributes to range of problems conducive
to crime and delinquency
a. poor health care
b. family, school, and neighborhood problems
3. any serious approach to reducing delinquency
must attend to reducing poverty
4. efforts to address larger economic forces
a. attract more jobs to inner-city areas and induce
employers to hire people from such areas
b. increase accessibility of inner-city residents
to suburban area jobs
c. create new public-sector jobs in inner-city communities
d. provide increased tax benefits and financial
assistance to families with children
e. help families collect child support
f. increase social services
5. some signs of improvement in recent years
a. decrease in poverty rate since early 1990s
b. decrease in percentage of poor people living
in high-poverty areas
c. decrease in rates of teen pregnancy
d. decrease in percentage of African American children
living in single-parent homes
e. decrease in number of people on welfare
6. reasons for concern
a. rate of poverty increase in 2001 and 2002
b. not much effect of new welfare law on well-being
of children of former welfare recipients
c. many people currently on welfare will soon lose
their benefits
d. funding for key social programs has been dramatically
reduced
VII. Summary of prevention and rehabilitation programs
A. Successful programs address causes of delinquency
B. Cost effective
1. more than pay for themselves by preventing crime
and other problems
2. many more cost effective than get-tough approaches
C. Popular support
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Chapter 25: WHAT SHOULD WE DO TO REDUCE DELINQUENCY?
I. Strategy for reducing
delinquency
A. Conditions that should be met in delinquency
reduction strategies
1. take account of research on causes and control
of delinquency
2. just and fair
3. within society's means
4. acceptable to most people in society
B. Strategy advocated by federal government
1. place more emphasis on prevention and rehabilitation
2. hold juveniles accountable for their behavior
3. protect community from dangerous juveniles
II. More emphasis on prevention and rehabilitation
A. Reasons to implement such programs
1. makes sense to prevent individuals from becoming
delinquent and to reform individuals who become delinquent
2. most programs work or show promise for success
a. can reduce offending rates upward of 50%
b. represent a fair and just response to delinquency
3. most are cost effective
4. strong public support for such programs, along
with get-tough approaches
B. Strategy for implementing prevention and rehabilitation
programs
1. enlist support of community leaders
2. community leaders put together team of people
responsible for implementing and running program
3. team identifies community problems that contribute
to delinquency and community resources that might be used to deal with
these problems
4. team responsible for designing and implementing
comprehensive approach for addressing community problems
5. team develops mechanisms to coordinate delivery
of services to at-risk and delinquent juveniles and ensures that cases carefully
managed
6. team assumes responsibility for evaluating this
approach
C. Federal government provides assistance
1. technical assistance on programs, implementation,
and evaluations
2. information on funding sources and some funding
itself
3. facilitates communication with other teams
D. Comprehensive approaches
1. differ from community to community, but share
certain common features
a. developed in range of different areas
b. involve broad segments of the community
c. target juveniles at high risk for delinquency
d. involve development of range of rehabilitation
programs
e. special effort to target serious, high-rate,
and chronic offenders for treatment
2. evaluations of comprehensive strategy
a. suggest that communities often have problems
carrying out these tasks
b. few communities that implement strategy have
some success at reducing delinquency
III. Hold juveniles accountable for their behavior and protect the
community
A. Reasons why
1. low direct control is cause of delinquency
2. older juveniles have some responsibility for
their behavior
3. strong political and public support
B. Juvenile justice systems sanctions juveniles,
but not in efficient manner
C. Holding juveniles accountable for their behavior
1. increasing certainty of punishment
a. teach parents, teachers and other how to better
exercise direct control
b. increase effort on part of juvenile justice system
to detect and sanction delinquency
(1) more police crackdowns
(2) certain types of community policing
(3) more resources for juvenile court and corrections
systems
c. employ system of graduated sanctions
D. Change how we punish
1. punish in way that minimizes negative effects
2. use community-based sanctions when possible
3. rebuild ties between offenders and larger community
E. Protect the community from dangerous offenders
1. institutionalize more juveniles than necessary
2. better to use small-scale institutions that emphasize
treatment
a. juveniles are less likely to be harmed by their
institutional confinement
b. juveniles are more likely to be rehabilitated
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